Transcript 3.7) Ch. 8 Lecture PowerPoint - History 1101: Western Civilization I

Order Restored
The High Middle Ages,
1000-1300
Order Restored
The Big Picture
Saxon Dynasty
Carolingian Dynasty
900
Hohenstaufen Dynasty
Capetian Dynasty
1200
Hapsburg Dynasty
Plantagenet Dynasty
1400
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Those Who Work:
Agricultural Labor
Harnessing the Power of Water and Wind
After 1000, Europeans used more mechanical
power than any other society ever had before,
and the main source of that power were water
mills. A cam extending from the axle of the
waterwheel convert rotary motion into vertical
motion. This power was used for a variety of
purposes: softening wool, making paper,
making beer, but most often for grounding
grain into flour. Owning a mill was often a
source of great prosperity, as the owner could
charge fees for its use. By the 1100s, peasants
had created wind mills based on water mills.
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Those Who Work:
Agricultural Labor
New Agricultural Techniques
– Oxen and Horses: A new cushioned yoke that made its way
from China allowed horses to pull plows more easily. Horses
could work more quickly and for longer hours than oxen.
– Three-Field Cultivation: In Roman times, farmers would plow
and plant one field and leave the other fallow to allow it to
regain its fertility. To increase productivity, medieval manors
split the land into three sections: one planted in the spring, one in
the fall, and one that lay fallow. Peasants introduced legumes
like peas and beans, which introduced more nitrogen to the soil
and increased the yield of subsequent grain crops planted on the
same land.
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Those Who Work:
Agricultural Labor
The Population Doubles
– Setting the Stage: Agricultural improvements and the end of the violence
of the 9th- and 10th-century invasions set the stage for population growth.
From the 11th to the 13th centuries, European population roughly doubled
from about 37 million to 74 million. Women in particularly benefited from
legumes, since they gave them more iron, which in turn better their health
and that of their children.
– Life Span: Anyone who lived past the dangerous years of infancy,
childhood as well as those associated with warfare and childbirth, could
expect to live as long as anyone in the 21st-century developed world: it was
not uncommon for people to live into the 80s and 90s.
– Expansion of Settlements: To accommodate the booming population,
Europeans expanded their settlements. For the most part, Germanic peoples
moved east into the territory of the Slavs. But some, like in the Low
Countries, pushed back the sea and built dikes to expand their farmland.
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Those Who Work:
Agricultural Labor
The Population Doubles
– New Freedoms: To entice peasants to move, lords often gave
them freedom from certain feudal obligations. Charters of new
villages might say that peasants were exempt from paying taxes
upon the food that they grew for the own consumption, or on
wine that they produced for their own use.
– Environmental Consequences: The expansion caused vast
swathes of forests to be destroyed through slash and burn
techniques. Settlers dumped human waster and remains of
slaughtered animals in what had been clean rivers. Coal burning
in growing towns polluted the air.
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Germanic Migration Eastward
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
Communes and Guilds: Life in a Medieval Town
– Town Life: Not everyone lived the rural life of the serf. Many escaped to the
relative freedom of the towns, where many of the bonds of feudal obligation
were looser. Many towns were walled to protect from marauders.
– Cities: After 1000, more grew into full-fledged cities: Florence and Venice
had 100,000; Cologne had 40,000; and London almost 40,000 by the 1300s.
– Communes: Towns often negotiated charters with feudal lords to allow
townspeople more freedoms than serfs: they did not have labor obligations
and could travel at will. If a serf managed to live “a year and a day” in a town
without being captured, he or she had earned the legal right of residence in
most towns. If town could not negotiate a charter, sometimes towns rose up in
violent revolt and established independence, becoming communes.
Communes ran their own government, but were not democratic: it was
assumed that the richest citizens would lead the commune.
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
Communes and Guilds: Life in a Medieval Town
– Guilds: Tradesmen in towns formed guilds, which were organizations
that protected the interests of certain tradesmen: bakers, goldsmiths,
shoemakers, etc. Both men and women could participate in guilds.
Young people were apprenticed to a master and work for a wage as a
journeyman. Once the individual had acquired enough experience, he
or she could submit a “masterwork” to be evaluated by the guild
masters. If it qualified, the journeyman became a full-fledged master
and member of the guild.
– Urban Jews: Jews had been slowly excluded from guilds over the
course of the medieval period. Jews were allowed to be merchants, and
they also became moneylenders, which Christians found to be
problematic because of New Testament provisions against that practice.
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
The Widening Web of Trade
– Venice: Receiving charters allowing free passage through
Byzantine waters as early 998, Venetian merchants led the way
in bringing back eastern luxury items like silks and spices from
the great bazaars of Baghdad. Other Italian city-states like Pisa
and Genoa followed suit by negotiating treaties with Muslim
rulers. The Italians would bring these goods to Spain and
southern France.
– Flanders: This land, which encompasses pieces of present-day
Belgium, Netherlands, and France, served as a trading center for
fine cloth and for Scandinavian goods (especially furs), in its
main cities of Bruges and Ghent.
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
The Widening Web of Trade
– Commercial Expansion: In the Roman era, trade had focused
almost entirely on the Mediterranean. But in the medieval
period, three trade zones developed: Southern, Overland, and
Northern (see the following map). All interacted with each other
in limited fashion, but each had its own depots where goods
changed hands through middle-men. Starting with the great fairs
of the twelfth century, these trade zones began to overlap more.
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Trade Routes, Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
The Widening Web of Trade
– Champagne Fairs: In the twelfth century, the French
count of Champagne began hosting fairs featuring goods
from all over Europe. Cheese, wines, and other luxury
goods were sold. Such fairs stimulated long-distance trade.
– Hanseatic League: These city-states along the northern
coast of the German lands came to monopolize trade
through the Baltic and North Seas. By the 1300s, they had
their own fairs that replaced the French fairs, and had
overtaken Flanders as the center of the northern trading
zone.
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Figure 8.3
A Medieval Fair in France
Photo credit:  Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
The Glory of God: Church Architecture
– Gothic Architecture: Around 1140, and abbot of the Church of St. Denis
near Paris envisioned a new church in a new style of architecture, reaching
upward dramatically and drenched in light.
– Romanesque Style: The rounded vaults of the older “Romanesque” style
were very heavy, and needed to be supported by thick walls, which let in
very little light into a cathedral.
– Gothic Style: The new style, using pointed arches and ribbed vaults,
distributed weight onto columns rather than walls. The columns were
supported by exterior “flying buttresses.” The overall effect was to create a
structure that soared upward and allowed a much greater amount of light to
enter the interior. Sprouting up across Europe, some of these cathedrals
could hold as many as 10,000 people.
– Stained Glass: Glassmakers of the period mastered the art of adding
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metallic oxides to glass to create deep, rich, primary colors.
Those Outside the Order: Town Life
The Glory of God:
Church Architecture
Reims Cathedral, France
Constructed in the 1200s and 1300s
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
The Rise of Universities
– Cathedrals and Education: Cathedrals not only drew pilgrims and
attracted commerce, but they also served as centers of learning, with
informally organized cathedrals schools. Students at these schools had bad
reputations, who tended to be rowdy heavy drinkers who got into fights.
Students complained of the high price of food and lodging charged by the
townspeople. By the twelfth century, universities emerged to replace
cathedral schools.
– Scholarly Guilds: Like craftspeople, scholars and students began to form
guilds in the twelfth century, which were called universitas in Latin,
meaning “guild.” These guilds received charters that gave them autonomy
from local authorities, and the right to license teachers.
– Advanced Degrees: Students who completed the basic courses of study
(the trivium—grammar, rhetoric, and logic—and the quadrivium—
arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy—could continue to receive a
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doctorate in subjects like Arabic medicine or law.
Medieval Universities
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
Scholasticism: The Height of Medieval Philosophy
– Scholasticism: This medieval philosophy tried to understand with
reason the Christian faith believers felt in their hearts.
– Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109): This scholar worked to show
through logic that God existed and was a perfect being. He also tried to
address the reasons why God became man in the form of Jesus.
– Peter Abelard (1079-1142): Abelard was hired to tutor a talented
young daughter of a local church official, fell in love with her, and
impregnated here. Heloise’s uncle had Abelard castrated, the child was
given to relatives, and both Abelard and Heloise entered the monastic
life. Abelard developed a dialectical approach in which he put
seemingly contradictory passages from church fathers together to
provide deeper understanding. He asked unsettling questions, like “Is
God the Author of Evil, or No?”
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
Scholasticism: The Height of Medieval Philosophy
Excerpt of a letter from Heloise to Abelard:
“Alas! my memory is perpetually filled with bitter remembrances of
passed evils; and are there more to be feared still? Shall my Abelard
never be mentioned without tears? Shall the dear name never be spoken
but with sighs? Observe, I beseech you, to what a wretched condition
you have reduced me; sad, afflicted, without any possible comfort
unless it proceed from you. Be not then unkind, nor deny me, I beg of
you, that little relief which you only can give. Let me have a faithful
account of all that concerns you; I would know everything, be it ever so
unfortunate. Perhaps by mingling my sighs with yours I may make your
sufferings less, for it is said that all sorrows divided are made lighter.”
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
Scholasticism: The Height of Medieval Philosophy
– Muslim and Jewish Scholars: Scholars like the Muslim Averroës
(1126-1198) and the Jewish scholar Maimonides (1135-1204)
interpreted Aristotle’s work with commentaries that were far more
sophisticated than those of their western counterparts, and were widely
read in Europe.
– Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274): This Italian churchman is considered
by many as the greatest scholar of the Christian Middle Ages. He
provided one text that could be used for missionary work among
Muslims and Jews, and another that tried to summarize all knowledge
to that point, his Summa Theologiae. He believed that faith and nature
could not contradict each other, but could inform each other.
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Those Outside the Order:
Town Life
Discovering the Physical World
– Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179): This German abbess and mystic
wrote accounts of vivid religious visions, but also applied classical
medical knowledge to women’s health, which she put forth in her work,
Of Causes and Cures. She ministered to the sick in her community, and
gave German and Latin names to drugs. She provided a more practical
approach to medical knowledge than most of her contemporaries.
– Experimental Science: Roger Bacon (ca. 1214-1292) is credited with
moving scientific scholarship toward the scientific method, proving the
value of experimentation over pure logic. Medieval knowledge was
often constrained by its constant looking back to the ancient experts.
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Those Who Fight:
Nobles and Knights
Castles: Medieval Homes and Havens
– Evolution of Castles: In the tenth century, these homes for nobles were
fortresses of wood and timber built on mounds. By the thirteenth
century, they had become large, defensive structures of wood and stone
that were almost impregnable to all but very large armies. It often had
an inner and outer wall, and the inner fortress often had supplies of
food and water to endure a long siege.
– Living Quarters: The inner fortress included a great hall where all
who resided in the castle ate and played games, while there were also
smaller private chamber where the lord and lady slept. By the thirteenth
century, the inner fortress was designed for comfort as well as security,
with pipes bringing water to upper floors and latrines built into walls.
Tapestries covered cold stone walls.
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FIGURE 8.6
Figure 8.8
Caerphilly Castle, Wales
Photo credit: CADW: Welsh Historic Monuments. Crown Copyright
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Those Who Fight:
Nobles and Knights
The Ideals of Chivalry
– Endemic Violence: In the eleventh century, churchmen met to try and
reduce the endemic violence of medieval European society, advocating
the “Peace of God,” which introduced rules of warfare.
– Chivalry: Slowly, a code of behavior and symbolic ritual of the ruling
class evolved called chivalry. According to many texts about chivalry,
knights should be strong and powerful, but always defend the church,
the poor, and women in need, and be loyal, courteous, and dignified.
– Jousts and Tournaments: These were mock battles that often resulted
in debilitating or fatal injuries, and the church tried to outlaw them. But
they had become too strongly entrenched in the chivalric code.
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Figure 8.9
Depiction of a medieval joust
Photo credit:  University of Heidelberg
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Those Who Fight:
Nobles and Knights
The Literature of Chivalry
– Chansons de Geste: “Songs of deeds” would be sung at medieval
gatherings, which celebrated the ideals of Christian knighthood of the
eleventh and twelfth centuries. Two of the most famous were the
French Song of Roland and the Spanish Poem of Cid.
– Loyalty and Bravery to a Fault: Both Roland and Cid were knights
who held to the code to their own detriment, demonstrating loyalty
even to those who were unworthy of it.
– Troubadours: In the twelfth century in France, a new type of poetry, of
called troubadours, or court poets. A change in sensibility evolved away
from the chansons de geste to tales of courtly love. This shift may have
come from the influence of Arabic love songs from Spain.
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Those Who Fight:
Nobles and Knights
In Praise of Romantic Love
– Poetry of the Troubadours: Around the twelfth century in
France, a new form of poetry replaced the chansons de geste as
the obsession of medieval courts, one that emphasized courtly
love rather than the deeds of knights.
– Possible Origins: Some historians believe that the new poetry
was influenced by Arabic love poems from Spain, while others
suggest it flourished with the patronage of wealthy noblewomen.
– Improved Treatment of Women? Whether or not these poems
and the ethos of romantic love improved the status of women is
debatable. It certainly did not help the position of peasant
women as writer believed only nobles were capable of real love.
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The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
England: From Conquest to Parliament
– Anglo-Saxon Rule Restored: After the death of King Canute, who
ruled both England and Denmark, an Anglo-Saxon king, Edward the
Confessor (r. 1042-1066) was restored to the throne, but he died in
1066 without an heir.
– King Harold Godwinson: The Anglo-Saxon witan crowned one of
their own king, but he was immediately challenge by Norwegian
invader. Harold was able to defeat the Norwegians at the Battle of
Stamford Bridge.
– William, Duke of Normandy: The Duke of Normandy in France, a
cousin of Edward the Confessor, believed the old king had promised
him the English throne. William sailed a large fleet across the English
Channel to invade and claim the throne.
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The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
England: From Conquest to Parliament
– William the Conqueror: William defeated Harold’s forces at
the Battle of Hastings, at which Harold, the last Anglo-Saxon
king, was killed. William’s invasion was to be the last successful
one of England.
– William’s Rule (1066-1087): He redistributed the Anglo-Saxon
nobles’ lands among his Norman followers. He established a
much more controlled feudal system of rule to the island,
requiring all nobles to take an oath to him as liege lord. He
replaced the Anglo-Saxon witan with his own assembly of
vassals, the curia regis, which set a precedent for what would be
come Parliament. Curiously, William, a vassal to the French
king, was now more powerful than those he supposedly served. 30
The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
England: From Conquest to Parliament
– Henry I (r. 1100 – 1135): This capable administrator created separate
departments in the curia regis, notably a financial one called the
Exchequer.
– Henry II (r. 1154-1189): This king instituted judicial reforms, sending
out traveling justices to investigate and prosecute crimes. These justices
challenged the authority of church courts, thus strengthening royal
authority.
– Richard the Lion-Hearted and King John: Richard I (r. 1189-1199),
Henry II’s eldest son, preferred fighting wars to administering the
kingdom, and ultimately died of a neglected wound he received during
a siege. His younger brother, John, took throne and began abusing his
power: incurring debt through costly wars in France, he went as far as
to extort his own citizens.
31
The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
England: From Conquest to Parliament
– Rebellion against John: English nobles, tired of John’s behavior, rebelled
against John and took the city of London, forcing John to retreat to a field
south of the city.
– Magna Carta: The rebels forced John to sign a document, the Magna
Carta, which asserted that kings were not above the law and could not
impinge on the traditional rights of the nobility, and furthermore, kings
could impose no new taxes without the consent of the governed, nor could
they tamper with the due process of law.
– Parliament: English King Edward I (r. 1272-1307) found himself in
desperate need of money to fund a war effort, so he gathered what he called
a “Model Parliament”: a body not only of high nobles and clergy, but two
knights from every county and burgesses (townspeople) from every town.
These two segments formed the precedent for the House of Lords and the
House of Commons.
32
The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
The Spanish Reconquer Their Lands
– Fighting the Muslims: On the Iberian peninsula, kings, nobles,
and clergy did not fight over the centralization of royal authority,
but rather a bigger problem: the reconquest of their territory
from the Muslims. The three Christian kingdoms—Aragon,
Leon-Castile, Navarre, and later, Portugal—were a united front
against the Muslims.
– The Reconquest: From the 900s through the 1200s, the
Christian kingdoms slowly pushed the Muslims southward,
driven by religious fervor. By the late 1200s, Muslims only held
southernmost region of the peninsula surrounding the city of
Granada. Yet Granada would not be defeated until 1492.
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Christian Expansion in Iberia
34
The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
France and Its Patient Kings
– Capetian Dynasty: Late in the 900s, the
Carolingian dynasty lost its royal title west of the
Rhine. In 987, the lord of the Île-de-France, the
region surrounding Paris, was elected by the
nobles to the French throne. From the late 900s to
the 1300s, the Capetians slowly asserted control
over the French nobility.
– Phillip II Augustus (r. 1180-1223): He defeated
King John of England, bringing Normandy,
Maine, and Anjou under the control of the crown.
Hugh Capet
– Louis IX (r. 1226-1270): This pious king of France tended
to the poor, but also had his advisors codify laws, and mandated that
the Parlement of Paris—a court, not a representative assembly—should
be the highest in the land. He died on a Crusade and became a saint. 35
King Louis hears the petitions of his subjects.
FIGURE 8.10
King Louis IX, known for his fair judgments, sits listening to citizens bringing petitions,
and metes out swift and severe capital punishment by hanging to those who deserve it.
Photo credit:  New York Public Library
36
The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
France and Its Patient Kings
– Philip IV (r. 1285-1314): This king, known as “Philip the Fair,”
engaged sought to eliminate the holdings of the English king, Edward I,
in France, the fief of Gascony.
– Estates General: To gain support for his war effort and raise taxes,
Philip called the first meeting of a three-part assembly called the
Estates General in 1302. The three parts consisted of those who pray
(the clergy), those who fight (the nobility), and those who work (the
townspeople and guild members). Each order deliberated separately,
allowed the monarch to retain tight control.
37
Medieval France, England, and Germany,
Tenth Through Fourteenth Centuries
38
The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
The Myth of Universal Rule: The Holy Roman Empire
– Saxon Dynasty: When the descendents of Charlemagne lost the
German throne in the 900s, German nobles elected a member of the
noble family of Saxony as king, Henry of Saxony.
– Otto I (r. 936-973): The most powerful Saxon king was Otto I, who
resembled Charlemagne in many ways. A great warrior who stopped
the Magyar invasion in 955, he also restored the title of Holy
Roman Emperor, going to Rome to be so crowned by the pope. But
even though the Empire looks vast and impressive on the map, even
Otto had a hard time controlling the independent-minded German
nobles who ruled over their small states very jealously.
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The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
The Myth of Universal Rule: The Holy Roman Empire
– Salian Dynasty: When the Ottonian dynasty ended in 1024, German
nobles selected Henry III (r. 1039-1056), from another branch of the
Saxon family known as the Salians. He used bishops and abbots that
he had appointed to assert royal power, leading the way for a conflict
with the pope that his son, Henry IV (r. 1056-1106), would have over
this issue, which became known as the “investiture controversy.”
– Hohenstaufen Dynasty: When the Salians ran their course, they
were replaced by the Hohenstaufens, who not only focused too much
attention on Italian affairs to finish the task of unifying Italian lands,
but ultimately gave the individual German princes too much
independence, making the task almost impossible.
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The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
The Myth of Universal Rule: The Holy Roman Empire
– Emperor Frederick I (r. 1152-1190): This Hohenstaufen emperor, known
as “Barbarossa” (“red-beard”), had a chance of unifying the German lands,
but kept getting involved in costly wars in Italy, dragged into conflicts
between the pope and city-states, neither who would submit to German rule.
– Emperor Frederick II (r. 1215-1250): Raised in Sicily and inheriting it to
rule, this German emperor focused most of his energies on the Kingdom of
Two Sicilies, creating a highly centralized government there. In the German
lands, he allowed the princes almost total sovereignty within their own
lands, only reserving the right to conduct the foreign affairs of the Holy
Roman Empire. He tried to unify Italy and scored some victories in 1237,
but was excommunicated by the pope, and at his death in 1250, Italy
remained unified.
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The Rise of Centralized
Monarchies
The Myth of Universal Rule: The Holy Roman Empire
– The Habsburg Dynasty: The German princes wanted to
maintain the autonomy they had gained under Frederick II, so
they elected a weak noble from the Hapsburg family, Rudolph,
as emperor. Ironically, this dynasty would gain the duchies the
duchies of Austria and become one of the most powerful and
long-lived dynasties in Europe, finally ending in the twentieth
century, at the end of World War I.
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Those Who Pray: Imperial Popes
and Expanding Christendom
A Call for Church Reform
– Papacy’s Reliance on German Emperors: Popes such as Nicholas II
(r. 1058-1061) realized that the papacy relied too much on German
emperors for military defense and tried to make alliances with other
powers, such as the Normans in southern Italy. He was also the first
pope to condemn the practice of “lay investiture”: the appointment of
church officials by secular rulers (kings or lords), and not the church
itself. To protect the selection of popes from lay influence, he set the
ground for the creation of the college of cardinals in 1059.
– Cluniac Monasteries: This network of monasteries, created to isolate
themselves from local authorities, were a powerful force advocating for
the church’s independence from lay influence.
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Those Who Pray: Imperial Popes
and Expanding Christendom
The Investiture Controversy
– Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073-1085): This pope declared that
popes, not kings or emperors, should guide Christendom, putting
himself in direct conflict with Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV
(r. 1073-1085). They fell into a fight over who should “invest”
bishops in the German lands, the pope or emperor, leading to a
prolonged military conflict that neither side really won.
– Concordat of Worms: In 1122, Henry IV’s successor, Henry V,
negotiated a compromise with the pope: the pope would present
new bishops with their “symbols of office,” showing the
dominance of the pope in the process. But the emperor could be
present at the election of bishops, and exert influence on the
decision.
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Those Who Pray: Imperial Popes
and Expanding Christendom
The Investiture Controversy
– Thomas Becket: This archbishop of Canterbury, the high church
official for England, clashed with his former best friend, King
Henry II (r. 1154-1189), over the church’s right to be exempt
from secular law. A small group of knights looking to curry the
king’s favor assassinated Thomas in his cathedral, cutting off the
top
– Innocent III:
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Those Who Pray: Imperial Popes
and Expanding Christendom
• The Byzantine Empire Struggles
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Those Who Pray: Imperial Popes
and Expanding Christendom
• Christians on the March: The Crusades,
1096-1291
– Pope Urban’s call
– Crusader states
– Subsequent Crusades
– Knights Templar
– Crusaders expelled
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The Early Crusades, 1096-1192
48
The Late Crusades, 1202-1270
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49
Those Who Pray: Imperial Popes
and Expanding Christendom
• Criticism of the Church
– Waldensians
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50
Those Who Pray: Imperial Popes
and Expanding Christendom
• The Church Accommodates: Franciscans
and Dominicans
– Francis of Assisi
– Dominican order
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51
Those Who Pray: Imperial Popes
and Expanding Christendom
• The Church Suppresses: The Albigensian
Crusade and Inquisition
– Albigensian Crusade
– The inquisition
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