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AN INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
DAT 10403
CHAPTER 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Menghubungkait empat komponen
utama dalam senibina komputer.
(CLO1-C3, PLO1-K)
Mengenalpasti fungsi aritmetik
dalam sistem komputer dengan
betul.
(CLO2-P2, PLO4-CTPS)
Menghuraikan kepentingan senibina
komputer dalam teknologi
maklumat. (CLO3-A1, PLO6-LLL)
Reference

Computer Organization and Architecture
Designing for Performance by William
Stallings
WHY STUDY COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

IEEE/ACM Computer Science Curriculum 2008

By IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers) Computer Science and ACM
(Association for Computing Machinery)

Students need to understand computer
architecture in order to make best use of the
software tools and computer languages they
used to create programs.
INTRODUCTION
Computer Architecture is a set of disciplines that
describes a computer system by specifying its parts and
their relations.
[wikipedia]
Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a
system visible to a programmer or, put another way, those
attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution
of a program.
[Stallings(2010)]
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
ARCHITECTURE
Computer
Architecture
Computer
Organization
Refers to attributes of a system visible to a
programmer (attributes that have a direct impact on
the logical execution of a program)
Examples : Instruction set, data types (numbers,
characters), I/O mechanism & techniques for
addressing memory.
Refers to the operational units & their
interconnections that realize the architectural
specifications.
Examples : Hardware, interfaces between computer
and peripherals & memory technology used
COMPUTER OPERATION CYCLE
COMPUTER FUNCTIONS
Computer must be able to :-
COMPUTER OPERATIONS
DATA
MOVEMENT
DEVICE
Simply transferring
data from one
peripheral or
communication line
to the other
DATA STORAGE
DEVICE
Data transferred
from the external
environment to
computer storage
(read) and vice versa
(write)
DATA
PROCESSING IN
STORAGE
DATA
PROCESSSING
BETWEEN
STORAGE &
EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT
Data processing en
route between
storage and the
external environment
TYPES OF COMPUTER OPERATIONS
1. Data Movement Operation
• Function as a data movement
device.
• Simply transferring data from
one peripheral or
communication line to another.
MOVEMENT
CONTROL
STORAGE
PROCESSING
TYPES OF COMPUTER OPERATIONS
2. Read/Write Operation
• Function as a data storage
device, with data transferred
from the external environment
to computer storage (read) and
vice versa (write).
MOVEMENT
CONTROL
STORAGE
PROCESSING
COMPUTER OPERATIONS [S.William 2003)
3. Process/Storage Operation
Operations
involving data
processing, on
data either in
storage (3) or en
route between
storage and the
external
environment (4)
MOVEMENT
CONTROL
STORAGE
4. Process Storage/External Environment
PROCESSING
STORAGE
MOVEMENT
CONTROL
PROCESSING
COMPUTER STRUCTURE
[S. William, 2003]
PERIPHERALS
COMPUTER
CPU
COMPUTER
COMMUNICATION
LINES
MAIN
MEMORY
SYSTEM
INTERCONNECTION
INPUT
OUTPUT
COMPUTER STRUCTURE
1- Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing functions;
often referred to as processor.
2- Main Memory
• Stores data.
3- Input/Output (I/O)
• Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
4- System Interconnections
• Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main memory, and
I/O.
• Example: system bus, consisting of a number of conducting wires to which all the
other components attach.
CPU STRUCTURE

Major structural components of CPU:
1- Control Unit
• Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer.
2-ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
• Performs the computer data processing functions.
3-Registers
• Provides storage internal to CPU
4-CPU inter connections
• Mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit, ALU and
registers
CPU INTERCONNECTIONS
[S. William, 2003]
CPU
REGISTE
RS
COMPUTER
I/O
SYS.
BUS
MEMORY
CPU
ALU
INTERNAL
CPU
INTER
CONNECTI
ON
CONTR
OL
UNIT
A BRIEF HISTORY OF
COMPUTERS
Charles Babbage (1791-1871)
THE FATHER OF COMPUTER
• born: 12/26/1791
• son of a London
banker
• Trinity College,
Cambridge
• Lucasian
Professorship
• Mathematician and
Scientist
Difference Engine
• 1822 plan for calculating
and printing mathematical
tables like they were used
in the navy
• using the method of
difference, based on
polynomial functions
Difference Engine
• 1822 design 6 decimal places with
second-order difference
• 1830 engine with 20 decimal places and
a sixth-order difference
Analytical Engine
• 1834 plans for an improved device,
capable of calculating any mathematical
function
• increase of calculating
speed
• never completed
Analytical Engine - Architecture
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separation of storage and calculation:
 store
 mill
control of operations by microprogram:
 control barrels
user program control using punched cards
 operations cards
 variable cards
 number cards
Analytical Engine
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more than 200 columns of gear trains and
number wheels
16 column register (store 2 numbers)
50 register columns, with 40 decimal digits of
precision
counting apparatus to keep track of repetitions
cycle time: 2.5 seconds to transfer a number
from the store to a register in the mill
addition: 3 seconds
conditional statements
Analytical Engine
First programmer – Ada Lovelace
Ada Lady Lovelace, daughter of Lord
Byron, was working with Babbage on the
Analytical Engine
 first ideas of

algorithm representation
 programming languages


already realized:
program loops
 conditional statements

COMPUTER HISTORY
It has become widely accepted to classify
computers into generations based on the
fundamental hardware technology
employed.
 Each new generation is characterized by
greater processing performance, larger
memory capacity, and smaller size than the
previous one.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
Generation
Approximate
Dates
Technology
Typical
Speed
(Operations
per second)
1
1946 – 1957
Vacuum Tube
40,000
2
1958 – 1964
Transistor
200,000
3
1965 – 1971
Integrated Circuit
1,000,000
4
1972 – 1977
Large Scale Integration
10,000,000
5
1978 – 1991
Very large Scale
Integration
100,000,000
6
1992 -
Ultra large Scale
Integration
1,000,000,000
Moore’s Law
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Increased density of components on chip
Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel
Number of transistors on a chip will double every year
Since 1970’s development has slowed a little

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Number of transistors doubles every 18 months
Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged
Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths,
giving higher performance
Smaller size gives increased flexibility
Reduced power and cooling requirements
Fewer interconnections increases reliability
FIRST GENERATION
Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957

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First Generation Electronic
Computers used Vacuum
Tubes
Vacuum tubes are glass tubes
with circuits inside.
Vacuum tubes have no air
inside of them, which protects
the circuitry.
Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957
Vacuum tube
Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957
Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957
ENIAC
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first fully electronic
digital computer built
in the U.S.
Created at the
University of
Pennsylvania
ENIAC weighed 30
tons
contained 18,000
vacuum tubes
Cost a paltry $487,000
IAS Computer
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Memory of IAS consists of 1000 storage locations.
Both Data and Instructions are stored there.
Numbers are represented in binary form.
Each instruction is a binary code.
Each number is represented by a 39 bit value.

With each instruction consisting of an 8-bit operation code
(opcode)
ENIAC
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Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
A decimal rather than a binary machine.


used stored-program concept.
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Numbers were represented in a decimal form.
A program could be represented in a form suitable for storing in
memory alongside data.
Design of a new stored-program computer called IAS
computer.
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Main memory
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Control Unit
Input/Output (I/O)
First Computer Bug - 1945

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Relay switches
part of computers
Grace Hopper
found a moth
stuck in a relay
responsible for a
malfunction
Called it
“debugging” a
computer
First Generation Computers
• Used the vacuum tubes technology for calculation as well
as for storage and control purpose.
Advantages:
(1) Fastest computing devices of their time;
(2) These computers were able to execute complex
mathematical problems in an efficient manner.
First Generation Computers
Disadvantages:
(1) The functioning of these computers depended on the machine
language.
(2) There were generally designed as special-purpose computers.
(3) The use of vacuum tube technology make these computers very large
and bulky.
(4) They were not easily transferable from one place to another due to
their huge size and also required to be placed in cool places.
(5) They were single tasking because they could execute only one
program at a time.
(6) The generated huge amount of heat and hence were prone to
hardware faults.
First Generation Computers
Too bulky i.e large in size
First Generation Computers
Vacuum tubes burn frequently
SECOND GENERATION
First Transistor
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Uses Silicon
developed in 1948
won a Nobel prize
on-off switch
Second Generation
Computers used
Transistors, starting in
1956
1
2
Transistor
Transistor board
Second Generation Computers
• Use transistors in place of vacuum tubes in building the
basic logic circuits.
Advantages:
(1) Fastest computing devices of their time;
(2) Easy to program because of the use assembly language;
(3) Could be transferred from one place to other very easily
because they were small and light;
(4) Require very less power in carrying out their operations;
(5) More reliable, did not require maintenance at regular
intervals of time.
Second Generation Computers
Disadvantages:
(1)The input and output media were not improved
to a considerable extent
(2) Required to be placed in air-conditioned places
(3) The cost of these computers was very high and
they were beyond the reach of home users
(4) Special-purpose computers and could execute
only specific applications.
THIRD GENERATION
IC (integrated circuit)
ICs (integrated circuits)
IC (integrated circuit)
Third Generation Computers
• Use of Integrated Circuits
Advantages:
(1) Fastest computing devices;
(2) Very productive;
(3) Easily transportable from one place to another because of
their small size;
(4) Use high-level languages;
(5) Could be installed very easily and required less space;
(6) Can execute any type of application.
(7) More reliable and require less frequent maintenance
schedules.
Third Generation Computers
Disadvantages:
(1)The storage capacity of these computers was still very
small;
(2) The performance of these computers degraded while
executing large applications, involving complex
computations because of the small storage capacity;
(3) The cost of these computers was very high;
(4) They were still required to be placed in air-conditioned
places.
FOURTH GENERATION
Birth of Personal Computers - 1975

256 byte memory
(not Kilobytes or
Megabytes)

2 MHz Intel 8080
chips

Just a box with
flashing lights

cost $395 kit, $495
assembled.
The MITS Altair 8800 is
a microcomputer designed in 1974 based on
the Intel 8080 CPU.
Fourth Generation Computers
• Use of Large Scale Integration technology and
Very Large Scale Integration technology
• The term Personal Computer (PC) became known
to the people during this era.
Fourth Generation Computers
Advantages:
(1) Very powerful in terms of their processing speed and
access time;
(2) Storage capacity was very large and faster;
(3) Highly reliable and required very less maintenance;
(4) User-friendly environment;
(5) Programs written on these computers were highly
portable;
(6) Versatile and suitable for every type of applications;
(7) Require very less power to operate.
Fourth Generation Computers
Disadvantages:
(1) The soldering of LSI and VLSI chips on the
wiring board was not an easy task and required
complicated technologies to bind these chips on
the wiring board;
(2) The working of these computers is still
dependent on the instructions given by the
programmer.
FIFTH GENERATION
Fifth Generation Computers
• The different types of modern digital computers
come under this category.
• Use Ultra Large Scale Integration technology that
allows almost ten million electronic components to
be fabricated on one small chip.
Fifth Generation Computers
Advantages:
(1) Fastest and powerful computers till date;
(2) Being able to execute a large number of applications at
the same time and that too at a very high speed;
(3) Decreasing the size of these computers to a large extent;
(4)The users of these computers find it very comfortable to
use them because of the several additional multimedia
features;
(5) They are versatile for communications and resource
sharing.
LATER GENERATIONS
1990s: Pentiums and Power Macs
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Early 1990s began penetration of computers into
every niche: every desk, most homes, etc.
Faster, less expensive computers paved way for
this
Windows 95 was first decent GUI for “PCs”
Macs became more PC compatible - easy file
transfers
Prices have plummeted
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$2000 for entry level to $500
$6000 for top of line to $1500
21st Century Computing
Great increases in speed, storage, and
memory
 Increased networking, speed in Internet
 Widespread use of CD-RW
 PDAs
 Cell Phone/PDA
 WIRELESS!!!
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Pentium Evolution (1)
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8080
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8086
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much more powerful
16 bit
instruction cache, prefetch few instructions
8088 (8 bit external bus) used in first IBM PC
80286
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first general purpose microprocessor
8 bit data path
Used in first personal computer – Altair
16 Mbyte memory addressable
up from 1Mb
80386
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32 bit
Support for multitasking
Pentium Evolution (2)
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80486
 sophisticated powerful cache and instruction
pipelining
 built in maths co-processor
Pentium
 Superscalar
 Multiple instructions executed in parallel
Pentium Pro
 Increased superscalar organization
 Aggressive register renaming
 branch prediction
 data flow analysis
 speculative execution
Pentium Evolution (3)
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Pentium II
 MMX technology
 graphics, video & audio processing
Pentium III
 Additional floating point instructions for 3D graphics
Pentium 4
 Note Arabic rather than Roman numerals
 Further floating point and multimedia enhancements
Itanium
 64 bit
Core i7
Xeon
See Intel web pages for detailed information on processors
What’s next for computers?

Use your imagination to come up with what
the next century holds for computers.
What can we expect in two years?
 What can we expect in twenty years?
