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• CMOS
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MOSFET - CMOS circuits
Digital and analog
CMOS applications are
described below.
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MOSFET - Dual-type (CMOS) MOSFET switch
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This "complementary" or CMOS type
of switch uses one P-MOS and one NMOS FET to counteract the limitations
of the single-type switch
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MOSFET - Dual-type (CMOS) MOSFET switch
The voltage limits for this switch are
the gate–source, gate–drain and
source–drain voltage limits for both
FETs. Also, the P-MOS is typically two
to three times wider than the N-MOS, so
the switch will be balanced for speed in
the two directions.
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MOSFET - Dual-type (CMOS) MOSFET switch
Tri-state circuitry sometimes
incorporates a CMOS MOSFET switch
on its output to provide for a lowohmic, full-range output when on, and
a high-ohmic, mid-level signal when
off.
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Moore's law - Continuing Moore's law in the beyond-CMOS era
While physical limits to transistor
scaling such as source to drain
leakage, limited materials for gate
metals, and limited material options for
channel material have been reached,
new avenues for continued scaling are
open
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Motorola 68000 - CMOS versions
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(Unlike CMOS circuits, HMOS still draws
power when idle, so power consumption
varies little with clock rate.) Apple selected
the 68HC000 for use in the Macintosh
Portable.
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Motorola 68000 - CMOS versions
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Motorola replaced the MC68008 with the
MC68HC001 in 1990. This chip resembled
the 68HC000 in most respects, but its data
bus could operate in either 16-bit or 8-bit
mode, depending on the value of an input
pin at reset. Thus, like the 68008, it could
be used in systems with cheaper 8-bit
memories.
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Motorola 68000 - CMOS versions
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The later evolution of the 68000 focused
on more modern embedded control
applications and on-chip peripherals.
The 68EC000 chip and SCM68000 core
expanded the address bus to 32 bits,
removed the M6800 peripheral bus, and
excluded the MOVE from SR instruction
from user mode programs. In 1996,
Motorola updated the standalone core
with fully static circuitry drawing only 2
µW in low-power mode, calling it the
MC68SEC000.
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Motorola 68000 - CMOS versions
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Motorola ceased production of the HMOS
MC68000 and MC68008 in 1996, but its
spin-off company, Freescale
Semiconductor, is still producing the
MC68HC000, MC68HC001, MC68EC000,
and MC68SEC000, as well as the
MC68302 and MC68306 microcontrollers
and later versions of the DragonBall
family. The 68000's architectural
descendants, the 680x0, CPU32, and
Coldfire families, are also still in
production.
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MOSFET - Dual-type (CMOS) MOSFET switch
This complementary or CMOS type of
switch uses one P-MOS and one N-MOS
FET to counteract the limitations of the
single-type switch
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MOSFET - Dual-type (CMOS) MOSFET switch
Three-state logic|Tri-state circuitry
sometimes incorporates a CMOS
MOSFET switch on its output to provide
for a low-ohmic, full-range output when on,
and a high-ohmic, mid-level signal when
off.
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CMOS
Frank Wanlass patented CMOS in 1963
(wikisource:United States patent 3356858|US
patent 3,356,858).
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CMOS
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CMOS is also sometimes referred to as
'complementary-symmetry metal–oxide–
semiconductor' (or COS-MOS).COS-MOS
was an RCA trademark, which forced
other manufacturers to find another name
—CMOS
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CMOS
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The words complementary-symmetry
refer to the fact that the typical digital
design style with CMOS uses
complementary and symmetrical
pairs of p-type semiconductor|p-type
and n-type semiconductor|n-type
metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFETs) for logic
functions.
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CMOS
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It was primarily for this reason that CMOS
became the most used technology to be
implemented in VLSI chips.
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CMOS
Other metal gates have made a
comeback with the advent of high-k
dielectric materials in the CMOS
process, as announced by IBM and
Intel for the 45 nanometre node and
beyond.[
http://www.intel.com/technology/45n
m/index.htm Intel 45nm Hi-k Silicon
Technology]
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CMOS - Technical details
CMOS refers to both a particular style of
digital circuitry design and the family of
processes used to implement that circuitry on
integrated circuits (chips). CMOS circuitry
dissipates Low-power electronics|less power
than logic families with resistive loads. Since
this advantage has increased and grown
more important, CMOS processes and
variants have come to dominate, thus the
vast majority of modern integrated circuit
manufacturing is on CMOS processes.
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CMOS - Technical details
As of 2010, CPUs with the best
performance per watt each year have
been CMOS Static logic (digital
logic)|static logic since 1976.
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CMOS - Technical details
CMOS circuits use a combination of pchannel and n-channel MOSFET|metal–
oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistors (MOSFETs) to implement logic
gates. Although CMOS logic can be
implemented with discrete devices for
demonstrations, commercial CMOS
products are integrated circuits composed
of up to millions of transistors of both types
on a rectangular piece of silicon of
between 10 and 400mm2.
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CMOS - Inversion
CMOS accomplishes current
reduction by complementing every
nMOSFET with a pMOSFET and
connecting both gates and both drains
together
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CMOS - Inversion
The image on the right shows what
happens when an input is connected to
both a PMOS transistor (top of diagram)
and an NMOS transistor (bottom of
diagram)
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CMOS - Inversion
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On the other hand, when the voltage of
input A is high, the PMOS transistor is in
an OFF (high resistance) state so it
would limit the current flowing from the
positive supply to the output, while the
NMOS transistor is in an ON (low
resistance) state, allowing the output
from drain to ground. Because the
resistance between Q and ground is low,
the voltage drop due to a current drawn
into Q placing Q above ground is small.
This low drop results in the output
registering a low voltage.
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CMOS - Inversion
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In short, the outputs of the PMOS and
NMOS transistors are complementary
such that when the input is low, the
output is high, and when the input is
high, the output is low. Because of this
behaviour of input and output, the
CMOS circuits' output is the inverse of
the input.
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CMOS - Inversion
The power supplies for CMOS are called
VDD and VSS, or VCC and Ground(GND)
depending on the manufacturer. VDD and
VSS are carryovers from conventional MOS
circuits and stand for the drain and source
supplies.http://www.fairchildsemi.com/an/AN/
AN-77.pdf These do not apply directly to
CMOS since both supplies are really source
supplies. VCC and Ground are carryovers
from TTL logic and that nomenclature has
been retained with the introduction of the
54C/74C line of CMOS.
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CMOS - Duality
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A CMOS circuit is created to allow a path
always to exist from the output to either
the power source or ground
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CMOS - Logic
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More complex logic functions such as
those involving Binary and|AND and
Logical disjunction|OR gates require
manipulating the paths between gates
to represent the logic. When a path
consists of two transistors in series,
both transistors must have low
resistance to the corresponding
supply voltage, modelling an AND.
When a path consists of two
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CMOS - Logic
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Shown on the right is a
circuit diagram of a
NAND gate in CMOS
logic
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CMOS - Logic
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An advantage of CMOS over NMOS is
that both low-to-high and high-to-low
output transitions are fast since the
pull-up transistors have low resistance
when switched on, unlike the load
resistors in NMOS logic. In addition,
the output signal swings the full
voltage between the low and high
rails. This strong, more nearly
symmetric response also makes
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CMOS - Logic
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See Logical effort for a method
of calculating delay in a CMOS
circuit.
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CMOS - Example: NAND gate in physical layout
This example shows a Logical
NAND|NAND logic device drawn as a
physical representation as it would be
manufactured
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CMOS - Example: NAND gate in physical layout
The CMOS transistors (devices) are
formed by the intersection of the
polysilicon and diffusion; N diffusion for the
N device P diffusion for the P device
(illustrated in salmon and yellow coloring
respectively)
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CMOS - Example: NAND gate in physical layout
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The N device is manufactured on a P-type
substrate while the P device is
manufactured in an N-type well (n-well). A
P-type substrate tap is connected to VSS
and an N-type n-well tap is connected to
VDD to prevent latchup.
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CMOS - Power: switching and leakage
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CMOS logic dissipates less power than
NMOS logic circuits because CMOS
dissipates power only when switching
(dynamic power). On a typical applicationspecific integrated circuit|ASIC in a
modern 90 nanometer process, switching
the output might take 120 picoseconds,
and happens once every ten
nanoseconds. NMOS logic dissipates
power whenever the transistor is on,
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CMOS - Power: switching and leakage
Static CMOS gates are very power
efficient because they dissipate nearly
zero power when idle. Earlier, the
power consumption of CMOS devices
was not the major concern while
designing chips. Factors like speed
and area dominated the design
parameters. As the CMOS technology
moved below sub-micron levels the
power consumption per unit area of
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CMOS - Power: switching and leakage
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Broadly classifying, power dissipation in
CMOS circuits occurs because of two
components:
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CMOS - Static dissipation
* 'Sub threshold
conduction when the
transistors are off.'
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CMOS - Static dissipation
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Both NMOS and PMOS transistors have a
gate–source threshold voltage, below
which the current (called sub threshold
current) through the device drops
exponentially. Historically, CMOS designs
operated at supply voltages much larger
than their threshold voltages (Vdd might
have been 5V, and Vth for both NMOS and
PMOS might have been 700mV). A special
type of the CMOS transistor with near zero
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CMOS - Static dissipation
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* 'Tunnelling current
through gate oxide.'
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CMOS - Static dissipation
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SiO2 is a very good insulator, but at very
small thickness levels electrons can tunnel
across the very thin insulation; the
probability drops off exponentially with
oxide thickness. Tunnelling current
becomes very important for transistors
below 130nm technology with gate oxides
of 20Å or thinner.
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CMOS - Static dissipation
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* 'Leakage current through
reverse biased diodes.'
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CMOS - Static dissipation
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Small reverse leakage currents are
formed due to formation of reverse
bias between diffusion regions and
wells (for e.g., p-type diffusion vs. nwell), wells and substrate (for e.g., nwell vs. p-substrate). In modern
process diode leakage is very small
compared to sub threshold and
tunnelling currents, so these may be
neglected during power calculations.
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CMOS - Static dissipation
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* 'Contention current in ratioed
circuit'
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CMOS - Dynamic Dissipation
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Multiply by the switching frequency
on the load capacitances to get the
current used, and multiply by voltage
again to get the characteristic
switching power dissipated by a
CMOS device: P = C V^2 f .
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CMOS - Dynamic Dissipation
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A clock in a system has an activity factor α=1,
since it rises and falls every cycle
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CMOS - Dynamic Dissipation
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* 'Short circuit power
dissipation'
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CMOS - Dynamic Dissipation
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Since there is a finite rise/fall time for
both pMOS and nMOS, during
transition, for example, from off to on,
both the transistors will be on for a
small period of time in which current
will find a path directly from VDD to
ground, hence creating a short circuit
current. Short circuit power
dissipation increases with rise and
fall time of the transistors.
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CMOS - Dynamic Dissipation
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CMOS gates at the end
of those resistive wires
see slow input
transitions
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CMOS - Dynamic Dissipation
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Leakage power reduction using new
material and system designs is
critical to sustaining scaling of
CMOS.A good overview of leakage
and reduction methods are explained
in the book
[http://www.springer.com/engineeri
ng/circuits+%26+systems/book/9780-387-25737-2 Leakage in Nanometer
CMOS Technologies] ISBN 0-387https://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html
CMOS - Analog CMOS
Besides digital applications, CMOS
technology is also used in Analogue
electronics|analog applications. For
example, there are CMOS operational
amplifier ICs available in the market.
Transmission gates may be used
instead of signal relays. CMOS
technology is also widely used for
radio frequency|RF circuits all the way
to microwave frequencies, in mixedsignal integrated circuit|mixed-signal
(analog+digital) applications.
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CMOS - Temperature range
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Conventional CMOS devices work over
a range of −55°C to +125°C. There were
theoretical indications as early as
August 2008 that silicon CMOS will
work down to −233°C
(40kelvin|K).Edwards C, Temperature
control, Engineering Technology
Magazine 26 July - 8 August 2008,
Institution of Engineering and
Technology|IET Functioning
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CMOS - Single-electron CMOS transistors
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Ultra small (L = 20nm, W = 20nm) CMOS
transistors achieve the single-electron
limit when operated at cryogenic
temperature over a range of −269°C
(4kelvin|K) to about −258°C
(15kelvin|K). The transistor displays
Coulomb blockade due to progressive
charging of electrons one by one. The
number of electrons confined in the
channel is driven by the gate voltage,
starting from an occupation of zero
electrons, and it can be set to 1 or many.
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Image sensor - CCD vs CMOS
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Today, most digital still cameras use
either a CCD image sensor or a CMOS
sensor. Both types of sensor
accomplish the same task of
capturing light and converting it into
electrical signals.
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Image sensor - CCD vs CMOS
Each cell of a Charge-coupled
device|CCD image sensor is an analog
device. When light strikes the chip it is
held as a small electrical charge in
each photo sensor. The charges are
converted to voltage one pixel at a time
as they are read from the chip.
Additional circuitry in the camera
converts the voltage into digital
information.
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Image sensor - CCD vs CMOS
A CMOS imaging chip is a type of
active pixel sensor made using the
CMOS semiconductor process. Extra
circuitry next to each photo sensor
converts the light energy to a voltage.
Additional circuitry on the chip may be
included to convert the voltage to
digital data.
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Image sensor - CCD vs CMOS
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Neither technology has a clear advantage
in image quality. On one hand, CCD
sensors are more susceptible to vertical
smear from bright light sources when the
sensor is overloaded; high-end CMOS
sensors in turn do not suffer from this
problem. On the other hand, cheaper
CMOS sensors are susceptible to
undesired effects that come as a result of
rolling shutter.
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Image sensor - CCD vs CMOS
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CCD is a more mature technology and
is in most respects the equal of
CMOS.[http://www.dalsa.com/public
/corp/Photonics_Spectra_CCDvsCMO
S_Litwiller.pdf dalsa.com - CCD vs
CMOS] from Photonics Spectra
2001[http://www.dpreview.com/learn
/?/Glossary/Camera_System/sensors
_01.htm dpreview.com - Sensors] By
Vincent Bockaert CMOS sensors are
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Image sensor - CCD vs CMOS
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Rao et al., CCD structures
implemented in standard
0.18 µm CMOS technology
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Active pixel sensor - Advantages of CMOS compared to CCD
1
The biggest advantage of a CMOS sensor
is that it is typically less expensive than a
CCD sensor. A CMOS camera also has
weaker blooming effects if a light source
has overloaded the sensitivity of the
sensor, causing the sensor to bleed the
light source onto other pixels.
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Active pixel sensor - Disadvantages of CMOS compared to CCD
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Since a CMOS video sensor typically
captures a row at time within
approximately 1/60th or 1/50th of a
second (depending on refresh rate) it
may result in a rolling shutter effect,
where the image is skewed (tilted to the
left or right, depending on the direction
of camera or subject movement)
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High-speed photography - CMOS
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The image quality and quantum efficiency of
CCD devices is still marginally superior to
CMOS.
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High-speed photography - CMOS
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IMEC later spun the research group off as
FillFactory, which was later purchased by
Cypress Semiconductor and sold again to
ON Semiconductor, while key staff went
on to create CMOSIS and Caeleste
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High-speed photography - CMOS
Subsequently, several camera
manufacturers compete in the high-speed
digital video market, including AOS
Technologies, Fastec Imaging, Mega
Speed Corp, NAC, Olympus, Photron,
Redlake, Vision Research, and IDT, with
sensors developed by Photobit, Cypress,
CMOSIS, and in-house designers.
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High-speed photography - CMOS
In addition to those science and
engineering types of cameras, an entire
industry has been built up around
industrial machine vision systems and
requirements. The major application has
been for high-speed manufacturing. A
system typically consists of a camera, a
frame grabber, a processor, and
communications and recording systems to
document or control the manufacturing
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Latchup - CMOS latchup
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In CMOS processes, these transistors can
create problems when the combination of
n-well/p-well and substrate results in the
formation of parasitic n-p-n-p structures
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Latchup - CMOS latchup
Consider the n-well structure in the first
figure. The n-p-n-p structure is formed by
the source of the NMOS, the p-substrate,
the n-well and the source of the PMOS. A
circuit equivalent is also shown. When one
of the two bipolar transistors gets forward
biased (due to current flowing through the
well, or substrate), it feeds the base of the
other transistor. This positive feedback
increases the current until the circuit fails
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CMOST
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The 'Rensselaer Technology Park' is a
technology park in North Greenbush,
New York, USA (though with a mailing
address in Troy, New York|Troy)
operated by Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute. As of 2009 the park has over
70 tenants representing a diverse
range of technologies and employing
over 2,400. The park is located along
the Hudson River approximately five
miles south of the RPI campus.
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CMOST - DeFreest Homestead
1
The DeFreest Homestead is historic house
and barn which was built around 1765 and
located near the entrance of the park. The
house and surrounding homestead were
listed on The National Register of Historic
Places in 1977.
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CMOS sensor
1
Such an image sensor is produced by a
CMOS (and is hence also known as a
'CMOS sensor') or NMOS logic|NMOS
process (branded Live MOS), and has
emerged as an alternative to chargecoupled device (CCD) image sensors.
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CMOS sensor
1
The term active pixel sensor is also used
to refer to the individual pixel sensor itself,
as opposed to the image
sensor;Alexander G
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CMOS sensor - History
1
The term active pixel sensor was coined
by Tsutomu Nakamura who worked on the
Charge Modulation Device active pixel
sensor at Olympus,Kazuya Matsumoto et
al., A new MOS phototransistor operating
in a non-destructive readout mode
[http://jjap.ipap.jp/link?JJAP/24/L323/ Jpn
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CMOS sensor - History
in 1969, at a time when
[http://www.siliconimaging.com/cmos_fund
amentals.htm passive-pixel sensors] – that
is, pixel sensors without their own
amplifiers – were being investigated as a
solid-state alternative to camera
tube|vacuum-tube imaging devices
1
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CMOS sensor - History
1
Another type of active pixel sensor is the
hybrid infrared focal plane array (IRFPA)
designed to operate at cryogenic
temperatures in the infrared spectrum. The
devices are two chips that are put together
like a sandwich: one chip contains
detector elements made in InGaAs or
HgCdTe, and the other chip is typically
made of silicon and is used to readout the
photodetectors. The exact date of origin of
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CMOS sensor - History
By the late 1980s and early 1990s, the
CMOS process was well established as a
well controlled stable process and was the
baseline process for almost all logic and
microprocessors
1
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CMOS sensor - History
Eric Fossum, et al., invented the image
sensor that used intra-pixel charge
transfer along with an in-pixel amplifier to
achieve true correlated double sampling
(CDS) and low temporal noise operation,
and on-chip circuits for fixed-pattern noise
reduction, and published the first extensive
article predicting the emergence of APS
imagers as the commercial successor of
CCDs
1
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CMOS sensor - History
Most recent, the CMOS sensor
technology has spread to medium
format photography with Phase One
(company) being the first to launch a
medium format digital back with a
Sony-built CMOS sensor.
1
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CMOS sensor - Comparison to CCDs
1
CMOS type sensors are widely used, from high-end
digital photography down to mobile-phone cameras.
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CMOS sensor - Pixel
1
The standard CMOS APS pixel today
consists of a photodetector (a pinned
photodiode), a floating diffusion, a
transfer gate, reset gate, selection gate
and source-follower readout
transistor—the so-called 4T cell
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CMOS sensor - APS using TFTs
1
However, because of the larger size
and lower transconductance gain of
TFTs compared to CMOS transistors,
it is necessary to have fewer on-pixel
TFTs to maintain image resolution
and quality at an acceptable level
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CMOS sensor - Array
1
A typical two-dimensional array of pixels is
organized into rows and columns. Pixels in
a given row share reset lines, so that a
whole row is reset at a time. The row
select lines of each pixel in a row are tied
together as well. The outputs of each pixel
in any given column are tied together.
Since only one row is selected at a given
time, no competition for the output line
occurs. Further amplifier circuitry is
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CMOS sensor - Size
1
The size of the pixel sensor is often given in
height and width, but also in the optical
format.
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CMOS sensor - Design variants
1
Many different pixel designs have
been proposed and fabricated
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CMOS sensor - Hard reset
1
Operating the pixel via hard reset results
in a Johnson–Nyquist noise on the
photodiode of V_n^2= kT/C or N_e= \frac,
but prevents image lag, sometimes a
desirable tradeoff
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CMOS sensor - Combinations of hard and soft reset
1
Techniques such as flushed reset,
pseudo-flash reset, and hard-to-soft
reset combine soft and hard reset
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CMOS sensor - Active reset
1
A more radical pixel design is the activereset pixel. Active reset can result in much
lower noise levels. The tradeoff is a
complicated reset scheme, as well as
either a much larger pixel or extra columnlevel circuitry.
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68000 - CMOS versions
1
(Unlike CMOS circuits, HMOS still draws
power when idle, so power consumption
varies little with clock rate.) Apple selected
the 68HC000 for use in the Macintosh
Portable.
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68000 - CMOS versions
1
Motorola replaced the MC68008 with
the MC68HC001 in
1990.[http://www.highbeam.com/doc
/1G1-8581526.html 68HC001 obsoletes
68008.], Microprocessor Report, June
20, 1990; available from HighBeam
Research (subscription). This chip
resembled the 68HC000 in most
respects, but its data bus could
operate in either 16-bit or 8-bit mode,
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68000 - CMOS versions
1
The later evolution of the 68000 focused
on more modern embedded control
applications and on-chip peripherals
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68000 - CMOS versions
Motorola ceased production of the
HMOS MC68000 and MC68008 in
1996,[http://groups.google.com/group/c
omp.sys.m68k/browse_frm/thread/ab9a
8520ee794d85/cedb5e4f449f346c
comp.sys.m68k Usenet posting], May
16, 1995; also see other posts in thread
1
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Nonvolatile BIOS memory - CMOS mismatch
1
CMOS mismatch errors typically occur if
the computer's power-on self-test
program:http://www.pcguide.com/ts/x/sys/
booterrGBER25c.htmlhttp://www.computerhope.com/issue
s/ch000385.htm
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Nonvolatile BIOS memory - CMOS battery
Some computer designs have used
non-button cell batteries, such as the
cylindrical List of battery
sizes#1.2F2AA|1/2 AA used in the
Power Mac G4 as well as some older
IBM PC compatibles, or a 3-cell NiCd
CMOS battery that looks like a barrel
(common in Amigas and older IBM PC
compatibles), which serves the same
purpose.
1
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Nonvolatile BIOS memory - Resetting the CMOS settings
1
If the machine lets one boot but does not
want to let the user into the BIOS setup,
one possible recovery is to deliberately
damage the CMOS checksum by doing
direct port writes using DEBUG (DOS
Command)|DOS debug.exe, corrupting
some bytes of the checksum-protected
area of the CMOS RAM; at the next boot,
the computer typically resets its setting to
factory defaults.
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Nonvolatile BIOS memory - Resetting the CMOS settings
1
That will write to CMOS (Offset
10h) with the value 0AAh.
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Back-illuminated sensor - Stacked CMOS
In January 2012, Sony developed the
back-side illuminated sensor further
with Stacked CMOS, where the
supporting circuitry is moved below the
active pixel section, giving another 30%
improvement to light capturing
capability.http://www.sony.net/Products
/SCHP/cx_news/vol68/pdf/sideview_vol68.p
df This was commercialized by Sony in
August 2012 as Exmor RS with
resolutions of 13 and 8 effective
megapixels.http://www.sony.net/SonyIn
fo/News/Press/201208/121
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CMOS image sensor - Disadvantages of CMOS compared to CCD
1
Since a CMOS video sensor typically
captures a row at a time within
approximately 1/60th or 1/50th of a
second (depending on refresh rate) it
may result in a rolling shutter effect,
where the image is skewed (tilted to
the left or right, depending on the
direction of camera or subject
movement)
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CMOS image sensor - Pixel
1
The standard CMOS APS pixel today
consists of a photodetector (a pinned
photodiode,A review of the pinned
photodiode for CCD and CMOS image
sensors, IEEE J
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Camera sensor - CCD vs CMOS
The newer sensor technology is Backilluminated sensor|Back-side illuminated
CMOS (BSI-CMOS) which uses less
electricity than traditional CMOS with
better performance than CCD, so lower
end cameras still use CCD sensors such
as those implemented by Fujifilm in its
Bridge camera#Examples of bridge
cameras|Bridge cameras. CCD sensors
are rarely used in new models, except for
very high pixel count, big sensor cameras
which still use CCDs.
1
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Multi-threshold CMOS
1
'Multi-threshold CMOS' (MTCMOS) is a
variation of CMOS Integrated circuit|chip
technology which has transistors with
multiple threshold voltages (Vth) in order
to optimize delay or power
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Multi-threshold CMOS
One method of creating devices with
multiple threshold voltages is to apply
different bias voltages (Vb) to the base or
bulk terminal of the transistors. Other
methods involve adjusting the gate oxide
thickness, gate oxide dielectric constant
(material type), or dopant concentration in
the channel region beneath the gate oxide.
1
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Multi-threshold CMOS
A common method of fabricating
multi-threshold CMOS involves
simply adding additional
photolithography and ion implantation
steps
1
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Multi-threshold CMOS
In principle, any number of threshold
voltage transistors can be produced. For
CMOS having two threshold voltages, one
additional photomasking and implantation
step is required for each of p-MOSFET
and n-MOSFET. For fabrication of normal,
low, and high Vth CMOS, four additional
steps are required relative to conventional
single-Vth CMOS.
1
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Multi-threshold CMOS - Implementation
The most common implementation of
MTCMOS for reducing Electric
power|power makes use of sleep
transistors. Logic is supplied by a virtual
Power supply rail|power rail. Low Vth
devices are used in the logic where fast
switching speed is important. High Vth
devices connecting the power rails and
virtual power rails are turned on in active
mode, off in sleep mode. High Vth devices
1
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Multi-threshold CMOS - Implementation
The design of the power switch which
turns on and off the power supply to the
logic gates is essential to low-voltage,
high-speed Electrical network|circuit
techniques such as MTCMOS. The speed,
area, and power of a logic circuit are
influenced by the characteristics of the
power switch.
1
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Multi-threshold CMOS - Implementation
1
In a coarse-grained approach, high Vth
sleep transistors gate the power to entire
logic blocks. The sleep signal is deasserted during active mode, causing the
transistor to turn on and provide virtual
power (ground) to the low Vth logic. The
sleep signal is asserted during sleep
mode, causing the transistor to turn off
and disconnect power (ground) from the
low Vth logic. The drawbacks of this
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Multi-threshold CMOS - Implementation
1
* logic blocks must be partitioned to determine
when a block may be safely turned off (on)
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Multi-threshold CMOS - Implementation
1
* sleep transistors are large and must be
carefully sized to supply the current
required by the circuit block
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Multi-threshold CMOS - Implementation
1
* an always active (never in sleep mode) power
management circuit must be added
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Multi-threshold CMOS - Implementation
In a fine-grained approach, high Vth sleep
transistors are incorporated within every gate
1
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Multi-threshold CMOS - Implementation
1
Some art is required to implement MTCMOS
without causing glitches or other problems.
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CMOS 4000 series
1
Milestones That Mattered: CMOS pioneer
developed a precursor to the processor
EDN, 6/22/2006] Almost all IC
manufacturers active during the era
fabricated chips from this series
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CMOS 4000 series
1
Eventually, the advantages of CMOS
(especially the later series such as
74HC) edged out the older TTL chips,
but at the same time ever increasing
Large Scale Integration|LSI
techniques edged out the modular
chip approach to design
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CMOS 4000 series
1
The series was extended in the late 1970s
and 1980s to include new types which
implemented new functions, or were better
versions of existing chips in the 4000
series. Most of these newer chips were
given 45xx and 45xxx designations, but
are usually still regarded by engineers as
part of the 4000 series.
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CMOS 4000 series
1
In the 1990s, some manufacturers (e.g.
Texas Instruments) ported the 4000
series to their newer HCMOS
technology with devices such as the
74HCT4060 providing equivalent
functionality to a 4060 IC but with
greater speed.
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CMOS 4000 series
1
The 4000 series integrated circuits have been used
in space satellites for many decades.
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CMOS 4000 series
[http://magnetometer.com/wpcontent/uploads/attitude-controlmagnetometer.pdf Attitude control
magnetometer]
1
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CMOS 4000 series
1
[http://www.gag.com/~bdale/talks/2002/thi
nk/amsat/Sources/smallsat.pdf AO-40
RUDAK Experiment Controller]
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CMOS 4000 series - Design considerations
1
CMOS Cookbook, ISBN 0-672-21398-2
The buffered devices are more
susceptible to output oscillation with
slow-changing inputs
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CMOS 4000 series - Design considerations
1
Although the original designation for
unbuffered and buffered parts was the
addition of an 'A' or 'B' suffix to the
part code (e.g.: 4000A = unbuffered,
4000B = buffered), some
manufacturers (e.g.: Texas
Instruments) later changed to using
UB (unbuffered) and B (buffered)
suffixes (e.g.: 4000UB and 4000B).
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CMOS 4000 series - Design considerations
The diagrams below show the
construction differences between a
simple buffered and unbuffered
CMOS NOR gate|NOR logic gate
1
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CMOS 4000 series - Design considerations
The 4000 series permits the use of
cookbook design, where standard circuit
elements can be created, shared, and
connected to other circuits with few, if any,
connection difficulties
1
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CMOS 4000 series - Design considerations
Some care needs to be
taken with the design of
circuits using CMOS chips
1
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CMOS 4000 series - Example common 4000 series chips
* 4000 - Dual 3-Input
NOR Gate and Inverter
1
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CMOS 4000 series - Example common 4000 series chips
1
* 4001 - Quad 2-Input NOR
Gate
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CMOS 4000 series - Example common 4000 series chips
1
* 4002 - Dual 4-Input
NOR Gate logical
disjunction|OR Gate
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CMOS 4000 series - Example common 4000 series chips
* 4008 - 4-Bit adder
(electronics)|Full Adder
1
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CMOS 4000 series - Example common 4000 series chips
* 4011 - Quad 2-Input
logical nand|NAND Gate
1
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CMOS 4000 series - 4017 decade counter
1
The '4017 IC' is a 16-pin CMOS decade
counter from the 4000 series. It takes
clock pulses from the clock input, and
makes one of the ten outputs come on in
sequence each time a clock pulse arrives.
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CMOS 4000 series - 4026 counter and display decoder
The '4026 IC' is a 16-pin CMOS sevensegment counter from the 4000 series. It
counts clock pulses and returns the
output in a form which can be displayed
on a seven-segment display. This avoids
using a binary-coded decimal to sevensegment decoder, but it can only be used
to display the (decimal) digits 0-9.
Additionally, the 4026 counter can be
connected to as many other counters as
needed when multiple seven segment
displays are required.
1
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CMOS 4000 series - 4511 BCD to seven-segment decoder
1
The '4511 IC' is a 16-pin CMOS BCD to
seven-segment decoder from the 4000
series. It takes the binary-coded
decimal from a binary counter and
decodes it to drive a common cathode
seven-segment display.
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CMOS (disambiguation)
1
'CMOS' is a complementary metal–oxide–
semiconductor, a class of integrated circuits.
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CMOS (disambiguation) - Technology
1
*Nonvolatile BIOS memory, in a personal computer,
historically known as CMOS with a CMOS battery
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CMOS (disambiguation) - Technology
1
*Credence Systems (NASDAQ symbol CMOS until
2008), a semiconductor equipment manufacturer
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CMOS (disambiguation) - Technology
*CMOS Definition
Composite Metal Oxide
Substrate
1
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CMOS (disambiguation) - Other
1
*The Chicago Manual
of Style, a publishing
style guide
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CMOS (disambiguation) - Other
*Contract manufacturing
organizations, a company with
customizable outsourced
manufacturing capabilities
1
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Logic family - CMOS
1
This means that the current draw of
CMOS devices increases with
switching rate (controlled by clock
speed, typically).
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Logic family - CMOS
1
CMOS gates can also tolerate much
wider voltage ranges than TTL gates
because the logic thresholds are
(approximately) proportional to power
supply voltage, and not the fixed
levels required by bipolar circuits.
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Logic family - CMOS
The required silicon area for
implementing such digital CMOS
functions has rapidly shrunk. VLSI
technology incorporating millions of
basic logic operations onto one chip,
almost exclusively uses CMOS. The
extremely small capacitance of the onchip wiring, caused an increase in
performance by several orders of
magnitude. On-chip clock rates as high
as 4GHz have become common,
approximately 1000 times faster than the
1
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Logic family - The CMOS–TTL logic level problem
1
Interconnecting any two logic families
often required special techniques
such as additional pull-up resistors, or
purpose-built interface circuits, since
the logic families may use different
logic level|voltage levels to represent
1 and 0 states, and may have other
interface requirements only met
within the logic family.
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Logic family - The CMOS–TTL logic level problem
1
TTL logic levels are different from those
of CMOS – generally a TTL output does
not rise high enough to be reliably
recognized as a logic 1 by a CMOS input.
This problem was solved by the
invention of the 74HCT family of devices
that uses CMOS technology but TTL
input logic levels. These devices only
work with a 5V power supply. They form
a replacement for TTL, although HCT is
slower than original TTL (HC logic has
about the same speed as original TTL).
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Logic family - Other CMOS families
1
Other CMOS circuit families within
integrated circuits include cascode
voltage switch logic (CVSL) and pass
transistor logic (PTL) of various sorts.
These are generally used on-chip and
are not delivered as building-block
medium-scale or small-scale
integrated circuits.
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Logic family - BiCMOS
1
One major improvement was to combine
CMOS inputs and TTL drivers to form of a
new type of logic devices called
BiCMOS|BiCMOS logic, of which the LVT
and ALVT logic families are the most
important. The BiCMOS family has many
members, including ABT logic, ALB logic,
ALVT logic, BCT logic and LVT logic.
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Depletion-load NMOS logic - Compared to CMOS
1
However, this is a simplified view, and a
more complete picture has to also
include the fact that even purely static
CMOS circuits have significant leakage
in modern tiny geometries, as well as the
fact that modern CMOS chips often
contain dynamic logic (digital
logic)|dynamic and/or domino logic
with a certain amount of pseudo nMOS
circuitry.Pseudo nMOS means that an
enhancement-mode p-channel transistor
with grounded gate is used in place of
the depletion-mode n-channel transistor
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PCMOS
1
Proponents claim it uses 30 times less electricity while
running seven times faster than the current fastest
technology.http://www.physorg.com/news153398964.h
tmlhttp://www.rice.edu/nationalmedia/news2009-0208-pcmos.shtmlhttp://www.infoworld.com/t/techindustry-analysis/top-underreported-tech-stories-2009455?page=0,5 PCMOS-based system on a chip
architectures were shown to be gains that are as high
as a substantial multiplicative factor of 560 when
compared to a competing energy-efficient CMOS
based realization on applications based on
probabilistic algorithms such as hyper-encryption,
bayesian networks, random neural networks and
probabilistic cellular automata.
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NAND gate - CMOS version
The standard, 4000 series, CMOS
integrated circuit|IC is the 4011, which
includes four independent, two-input,
NAND gates.
1
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BiCMOS
1
BiCMOS is an evolved 'semiconductor
technology' that integrates two formerly
separate semiconductor technologies those of the bipolar junction transistor and
the CMOS transistor - in a single
integrated circuit device.
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BiCMOS
Bipolar junction transistors offer high
speed, high gain, and low output electrical
resistance|resistance, which are excellent
properties for high-frequency analog
amplifiers, whereas CMOS technology
offers high input resistance and is
excellent for constructing simple, lowelectric power|power logic gates
1
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BiCMOS
1
The Intel P5|Pentium, Pentium Pro, and
SuperSPARC microprocessors also used
BiCMOS.
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BiCMOS - Disadvantages
1
But since CMOS is already ideal for pure
digital logic, this is only a serious issue
when it is desirable to put logic circuits
together on the same chip with other
circuits that are not strictly logic: either for
the purpose of a mixed-signal application,
or simply to reduce the chip count in an
electronic product by combining two chips
into one, in order to reduce cost, size,
and/or weight.BiCMOS is also used in
many areas.
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HCMOS
1
'HCMOS', high-speed CMOS, is the set of
specifications for electrical ratings and
characteristics, forming the 74HC00
family, a part of the 7400 series of
integrated
circuits.[http://www.standardics.nxp.com/s
upport/documents/logic/pdf/family.hcmos.s
pecification.pdf HCMOS family
characteristics], Philips Semiconductors,
March 1988
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HCMOS
The 74HC00 family followed, and
improved upon, the 74C00 series (which
provided an alternative CMOS logic family
to the 4000 series but retained the part
number scheme and pinouts of the
standard 7400 series (especially the
74LS00 series) .
1
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HCMOS
1
Some specifications include:
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HCMOS
1
*DC input voltage range
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HCMOS
1
*output rise and fall
times
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HCMOS
HCMOS also stands for high-density
CMOS. The term was used to describe
microprocessors, and other complex
integrated circuits, which use a smaller
manufacturing processes, producing
more transistors per area. The Freescale
68HC11 is an example of a popular
HCMOS
microcontroller.[http://acronyms.thefre
edictionary.com/HCMOS HCMOS
acronyms],
thefreedictionary.com[http://www.moto
rola-datasheet.com/hc11.htm HC11
Datasheet]: Motorola's HC11: HCMOS
1
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HCMOS - Variations
* 'HCT' stands for high-speed CMOS
with transistor–transistor logic
voltages. These devices are similar to
the HCMOS types except they will
operate at standard TTL power supply
voltages and logic input levels. This
allows for direct pin-to-pin compatible
CMOS replacements to reduce power
consumption without loss of speed.
[http://ics.nxp.com/support/documents/
1
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HCMOS - Variations
1
* 'HCU' stands for high-speed CMOS
un-buffered. This type of CMOS
contains no buffer and is ideal for
crystals and other ceramic oscillators
needing linearity.
[http://www.ecsxtal.com/store/pdf/c
er_prin.pdf Ceramic Resonator
Applications www.ecsxtal.com]
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HCMOS - Variations
1
[http://www.semicon.toshiba.co.jp/docs/dat
asheet/en/LogicIC/TC74VHC125F_TC74V
HC126FT_en_datasheet_071001.pdf
TOSHIBA CMOS Digital Integrated Circuit
www.semicon.toshiba.co.jp]
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HCMOS - Variations
* 'AHCT' stands for advanced high-speed
CMOS with TTL inputs. Typical propagation
delay time is between 5 ns and 6 ns.
[http://focus.ti.com/paramsearch/docs/param
etricsearch.tsp?familyId=1family=logicuiTemp
lateId=SZ_Tparameter=2582704419techFam
Id=5military=no AHCT - Advanced HighSpeed CMOS focus.ti.com]
[http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/sgyn133/sgyn133.pdf
Advanced High-Speed CMOS Logic
www.ti.com]
[http://ics.nxp.com/products/ahc/overview/
AHC(T) family overview ics.nxp.com]
1
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Fujifilm X-Pro1 - Fujifilm X-Trans CMOS sensor
1
The Fujifilm X-Trans CMOS sensor
used in the X-Pro1 (and other Fuji Xseries cameras) is claimed to provide
higher resolution than full-frame
sensors, and also produce better
colour reproduction.
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Fujifilm X-Pro1 - Fujifilm X-Trans CMOS sensor
1
Anti-aliasing filters are used on standard
Bayer Array Sensors to reduce moire
pattern|moiré effect when shooting regular
patterns - however they are known to
slightly reduce resolution. The X-Trans
CMOS sensor uses an irregular pattern of
pixels (similar to that found on Silver
halide Photographic film|film) in order to
reduce moire pattern|moiré without the
need for an Anti-aliasing filter|AA filter.
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Fujifilm X-Pro1 - Fujifilm X-Trans CMOS sensor
1
This same irregular pattern ensures that
all horizontal and vertical lines of pixels
contain at least one R, G and B pixel
whereas Bayer array sensors do not have
R and B in some lines resulting in false
colour reproduction.
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High speed photography - CMOS
1
IMEC later spun the research group off
as FillFactory, which was later
purchased by Cypress Semiconductor
and sold again to ON Semiconductor,
while key staff went on to create
CMOSIS and Caeleste
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Sony Alpha 580 - CMOS Sensor
1
This sensor is capable of recording in 5
different File qualities / formats :
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MC68000 - CMOS versions
Motorola ceased production of the
HMOS MC68000 and MC68008 in
1996,[http://groups.google.com/grou
p/comp.sys.m68k/browse_frm/threa
d/ab9a8520ee794d85/cedb5e4f449f346
c comp.sys.m68k Usenet posting],
May 16, 1995; also see other posts in
thread
1
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CMOS battery
1
'Nonvolatile BIOS memory' refers to a
small Memory (computers)|memory
on personal computer|PC
motherboards that is used to store
BIOS settings. It was traditionally
called 'CMOS' RAM because it used a
volatile memory|volatile, low-power
CMOS|complementary metal-oxidesemiconductor (CMOS) Static random
access memory|SRAM (such as the
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CMOS battery
The term remains in wide use but it
has grown into a misnomer:
nonvolatile storage in contemporary
computers is often in EEPROM or
flash memory (like the BIOS code
itself); the remaining usage for the
battery is then to keep the real-time
clock (RTC) going. The typical
NVRAM capacity is 512 bytes, which is
generally sufficient for all BIOS
1
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CMOS battery
The CMOS RAM and the real-time
clock have been integrated as a part of
the Southbridge
(computing)|southbridge chipset and
it may not be a standalone chip on
modern motherboards.
1
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CMOS battery
1
On ATX motherboards, this will supply 5V
power to the motherboard even if it is
apparently switched off, and keep the
CMOS memory energized
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CMOS battery
1
With (non-accesible close) computers you
may need to disconnect cables, remove
drives, or remove other parts of the
computer to get full access to the CMOS
battery.http://www.computerhope.com/issu
es/ch000239.htm
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CMOS battery - Rechargeable CMOS battery or capacitors
1
Asus Eee PC series Models 1005ha
1005hab 1008ha and others use Varta
ML1220 or equivalent Maxell, Sanyo
and Panasonic ML1220 Lithium Ion
coin cell rechargeable batteries,
terminated with a 2 pin Molex
connector
plug.http://www.amazon.com/ASUSEEE-PC-1008HA1005HAB/dp/B005J1T5YM
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CMOS battery - Capacitors
Rather than using a battery, heavy duty
capacitors can be used as an alternative.
They would be connected where the original
NiCd / NiMH battery goes.http://pcrestorer.com/replacing-cmos-batteries-in-oldpcs/http://www.ebay.com/itm/PANASONICCAPACITOR-MIN-PCB-MOUNT-GOLDMEMORY-BACKUP-0-22F-HORIZONTAEECS0HD224H/181520225547?pt=AU_Electronics_Wholesa
le_Electronicshash=item2a4372d50b
1
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The Weather Network - CMOS members
1
Seven TWN presenters are members of
the Canadian Meteorological and
Oceanographic Society (CMOS). The
Weather Network and MeteoMedia have
more CMOS-endorsed presenters than
any other Canadian weather media
sources. On TWN, Chris Murphy, Kim
MacDonald, Chris Mei, Suzanne
Leonard, Chris St. Clair, Sheryl Plouffe
and Nadine Powell are all CMOS
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