Transcript Ken-computer history-v7 - UC Berkeley Industrial Engineering

Week 12
The Universal Representation:
The Computer and Digitalization
Sources:
www.iu.edu/~emusic/361/iuonly/slides/digitalaudio.ppt
www.cs.virginia.edu/~evans/cs150/classes/class24/lecture24.ppt
www.computinghistorymuseum.org/teaching/.../pptlectures/History.ppt
www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/TM/computer%20history1.ppt
First Computing Machine:
Abacus
• 3000 BCE, early form
of beads on wires,
used in China,…
• From semitic abaq,
meaning dust.
• Still in use today
Mechanical Reasoning: Logic
Aristotle (~350BC): Organon
Codify logical deduction with rules of inference
(syllogisms)
Every A is a P
X is an A
X is a P
Every human is mortal.
Gödel is human.
Gödel is mortal.
Greek Logic
• Euclid (~300BC): Elements
– We can reduce Geometry to a few axioms and derive the rest by
following rules of
– Propositional Logic
– Constants:
False, True (Binary Logic: Two values)
– Symbols 0,1
– Variables: p, q, r, …
– Punctuation:
()
– Connectives:
• (not p),
–
–
–
–
( p and q),
( p or q),
( p implies q, p only if q, if p then q, conditional),
(p if and only if q)
– Well-formed formula (wff)
Algorithm (825AD)
Mathematical “Recipe” for solving a class of
problems.
Al-Khwārizmī, muslim Persian astronomer and
mathematician, wrote a treatise in the arabic
language in 825 AD, On Calculation with
Hindu–Arabic numeral system.
BLAISE PASCAL
(1623 - 1662)

In 1642, the French
mathematician and philosopher
Blaise Pascal invented a calculating
device that would come to be called
the "Adding Machine".
BLAISE PASCAL
(1623 - 1662)

Originally called a "numerical wheel
calculator" or the "Pascaline", Pascal's
invention utilized a train of 8 moveable dials or
cogs to add sums of up to 8 figures long. As
one dial turned 10 notches - or a complete
revolution - it mechanically turned the next
dial.
Pascal's mechanical Adding Machine
automated the process of calculation. Although
slow by modern standards, this machine did
provide a fair degree of accuracy and speed.
Gottfried Wilhelm von
LEIBNIZ
(1646-1716)
Computing Machine (1679)
Binary Numbers (1701)
Binary Numbers
1. Computers use Binary Numbers.
2. What is a Character?
3. What are the Characters in the English Alphabet?
A, B, C, …., Z (there are 26 of these)
4. We combine these Characters to make Words:
CAT, HAT, …
5. What are the Characters in the Decimal Number System?
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 (there are how many? 10!)
6. We combine these to make Decimal Numbers:
12, 34, … (we add columns of 10, 100, … as needed)
7. In the Binary Number System, there are only two
characters:
0, 1 …(so we add columns of 2, 4, 8, 16, … as
needed)
8. Now, Let’s learn how to Match a Decimal Number to a
Binary Number…
Binary Numbers
Decimal
10’s 1’s
0
0
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
16’s
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Binary
8’s
4’s
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
2’s
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1’s
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
Jacquard Loom (1801)
Mechanical Computer
• first stored program metal cards
• first computer
manufacturing
• still in use today!
Charles Babbage
• Difference Engine c.1822
– huge calculator, never finished
• Analytical Engine 1833
– could store numbers
– calculating “mill” used punched
metal cards for instructions
– powered by steam!
– accurate to six decimal places
Importance of the Difference Engine
• 1. First attempt to devise a computing machine that
was automatic in action and well adapted, by its
printing mechanism, to a mathematical task of
considerable importance.
Ada Augusta Byron, 1815-1852
• born on 10 December 1815.
• named after Byron's half sister,
Augusta, who had been his mistress.
Ada Augusta Byron,
Countess of Lovelace
1842
• Translated Menebrea’s paper into English
• Taylor’s: “The editorial notes are by the translator,
the Countess of Lovelace.”
• Footnotes enhance the text and provide examples of
how the Analytical Engine could be used, i.e., how it
would be programmed to solve problems!
• First Algorithm
• “world’s first programmer”
Logic
Mathematics and
Mechanical Reasoning
• Newton (1687): Philosophiæ Naturalis
Principia Mathematica
– We can reduce the motion of objects (including
planets) to following axioms (laws)
mechanically
Mechanical Reasoning
• Late 1800s – many mathematicians working
on codifying “laws of reasoning”
– George Boole, Laws of Thought
– Augustus De Morgan
• Whitehead and Russell, 1911-1913
– Principia Mathematica
– Attempted to formalize all mathematical
knowledge about numbers and sets
All true statements
about numbers
Perfect Axiomatic System
Derives all true
statements, and no false
statements starting from a
finite number of axioms
and following mechanical
inference rules.
Incomplete Axiomatic System
incomplete
Derives
some, but not all true
statements, and no false
statements starting from a
finite number of axioms
and following mechanical
inference rules.
Inconsistent Axiomatic System
Derives
all true
statements, and some false
statements starting from a
finite number of axioms
and following mechanical
inference rules.
some false
statements
Principia Mathematica
• Whitehead and Russell (1910– 1913)
– Three Volumes, 2000 pages
• Attempted to axiomatize mathematical
reasoning
– Define mathematical entities (like numbers) using
logic
– Derive mathematical “truths” by following
mechanical rules of inference
– Claimed to be complete and consistent
• All true theorems could be derived
• No falsehoods could be derived
Russell’s Paradox
• Some sets are not members of themselves
– set of all Even Numbers
• Some sets are members of themselves
– set of all things that are non-Even Numbers
• S = the set of all sets that are not
members of themselves
• Is S a member of itself?
Russell’s Paradox
• S = set of all sets that are not members of
themselves
• Is S a member of itself?
– If S is an element of S, then S is a member of
itself and should not be in S.
– If S is not an element of S, then S is not a
member of itself, and should be in S.
Epimenides Paradox
Epidenides (a Cretan):
“All Cretans are liars.”
Equivalently:
“This statement is false.”
Russell’s types can help
with the set paradox, but
not with these.
Kurt Gödel
• Born 1906 in Brno (now
Czech Republic, then
Austria-Hungary)
• 1931: publishes Über
formal unentscheidbare
Sätze der Principia
Mathematica und
verwandter Systeme (On
Formally Undecidable Propositions of
Principia Mathematica and Related Systems)
Gödel’s Solution
All consistent axiomatic formulations of number
theory include undecidable propositions.
undecidable – cannot be proven either true or
false inside the system.
Gödel’s Theorem
In the Principia Mathematica system,
there are statements that cannot be
proven either true or false.
Gödel’s Theorem
In any interesting rigid system, there
are statements that cannot be proven
either true or false.
Proof – General Idea
• Theorem: In the Principia
Mathematica system, there are
statements that cannot be
proven either true or false.
• Proof: Find such a statement
Gödel’s Statement
G:
This statement does not
have any proof in the
system of Principia
Mathematica.
G is unprovable, but true!
Gödel’s Proof Idea
G: This statement does not have any proof in
the system of PM.
If G is provable, PM would be inconsistent.
If G is unprovable, PM would be incomplete.
Thus, PM cannot be complete and consistent!
Alan Turing (1912-1954)
• On Computable
Numbers with an
application to the
Entscheidungs-problem
• (1936)
• Code breaking: Enigma
Turing Machines, 1936
Universal Computing machine.
Precise vocabulary: 0, 1
Class of primitive
operations:
Read
Write
Shift Left
Shift Right
Well Formed Sequences
Correctness
Completeness
Equivalence
Complexity
http://aturingmachine.com/
Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)
Herman Hollerith
• Born: February 29, 1860
– Civil War: 1861-1865
•
•
•
•
•
•
Columbia School of Mines (New York)
1879 hired at Census Office
1882 MIT faculty (T is for technology!)
1883 St. Louis (inventor)
1884 Patent Office (Wash, DC)
1885 “Expert and Solicitor of Patents”
Census
• Article I, Section 2: Representatives and direct
Taxes shall be apportioned among the several
states...according to their respective
numbers...(and) every ...term of ten years
• 1790: 1st US census
• Population: 3,929,214
• Census Office
Population Growth:
•
•
•
•
1790
4 million
1840
17 million
1870
40 million
1880
50 million
fear of not being able to enumerate the census in
the 10 intervening years
• 1890
63 million
Computing Tabulating Recording
Company,(C-T-R)
• 1911: Charles Flint
– Computing Scale Company
(Dayton, OH)
– Tabulating Machine
Company, and
– International Time
Recording Company
(Binghamton, NY)
•IBM (1924)
• Thomas J. Watson
(1874-1956)
hired as first president
• In1924, Watson renames
CTR as International
Business Machines
Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1956
• First Generation Electronic
Computers used Vacuum Tubes
• Vacuum tubes are glass tubes with
circuits inside.
• Vacuum tubes have no air inside of
them, which protects the circuitry.
HOWARD AIKEN
(1900 - 1973)

Aiken thought he could create a modern
and functioning model of Babbage's Analytical
Engine.
He succeeded in securing a grant of 1
million dollars for his proposed Automatic
Sequence Calculator; the Mark I for short.
From IBM.
In 1944, the Mark I was "switched" on.
Aiken's colossal machine spanned 51 feet in
length and 8 feet in height. 500 meters of
wiring were required to connect each
component.
HOWARD AIKEN

The Mark I did transform
Babbage's dream into reality and did
succeed in putting IBM's name on the
forefront of the burgeoning computer
industry. From 1944 on, modern
computers would forever be associated
with digital intelligence.
ENIAC
1946

Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Computer
Under the leadership of J. Presper Eckert
(1919 - 1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907 1980) the team produced a machine that
computed at speeds 1,000 times faster than
the Mark I was capable of only 2 years
earlier.
Using 18,00-19,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000
resistors and 5 million soldered joints this
massive instrument required the output of a
small power station to operate it.
ENIAC at Moore School,
University of Pennsylvania
Early Thoughts about
Stored Program Computing
• January 1944 Moore School team thinks of better ways
to do things; leverages delay line memories from War
research
• September 1944 John von Neumann visits
– Goldstine’s meeting at Aberdeen Train Station
• October 1944 Army extends the ENIAC contract to
include research on the EDVAC and the storedprogram concept
• Spring 1945 ENIAC working well
• June 1945 First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC:
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
First Draft Report (June 1945)
• John von Neumann prepares a report on the EDVAC
which identifies how the machine could be programmed
(unfinished very rough draft)
– academic: publish for the good of science
– engineers: patents, patents, patents
• von Neumann never repudiates the myth that he wrote it;
most members of the ENIAC team ontribute ideas
Manchester Mark I (1948)
Grace Hopper
• Programmed UNIVAC
• Recipient of Computer
Science’s first “Man of the
Year Award”
First Computer Bug
• Relay switches part
of computers
• Grace Hopper
found a moth stuck
in a relay
responsible for a
malfunction
• Called it
“debugging” a
computer
As We May Think
(1945)
TRANSISTOR
1948

In the laboratories of Bell Telephone,
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William
Shockley discovered the "transfer resistor";
later labelled the transistor.
Advantages:
increased reliability
1/13 size of vacuum tubes
consumed 1/20 of the electricity of
vacuum tubes
were a fraction of the cost
TRANSISTOR
1948

This tiny device had a huge impact
on and extensive implications for
modern computers. In 1956, the
transistor won its creators the Noble
Peace Prize for their invention.
Logic
Turing Test (1950)
The First Microprocessor – 1971
• The 4004 had 2,250 transistors
• four-bit chunks (four 1’s or 0’s)
• 108Khz
• Called “Microchip”
Xerox Parc (1970)
ALTAIR
1975

The invention of the transistor
made computers smaller, cheaper and
more reliable. Therefore, the stage
was set for the entrance of the
computer into the domestic realm. In
1975, the age of personal computers
commenced.
Under the leadership of Ed Roberts
the Micro Instrumentation and
Telemetry Company (MITS) wanted to
design a computer 'kit' for the home
hobbyist.
ALTAIR 1975

Based on the Intel 8080
processor, capable of controlling 64
kilobyes of memory, the MITS Altair
- as the invention was later called was debuted on the cover of the
January edition of Popular Electronics
magazine.
Presenting the Altair as an
unassembled kit kept costs to a
minimum. Therefore, the company was
able to offer this model for only
$395. Supply could not keep up with
demand.
ALTAIR
1975

ALTAIR FACTS:
No Keyboard
No Video Display
No Storage Device
Apple (1976)

IBM's major competitor was a
company lead by Steve Wozniak and
Steve Jobs; the Apple Computer Inc.
The "Lisa" was the result of their
competitive thrust.
This system differed from its
predecessors in its use of a "mouse" then a quite foreign computer
instrument - in lieu of manually typing
commands.
However, the outrageous price of
the Lisa kept it out of reach for many
computer buyers.
Apple

Apple's brainchild was the
Macintosh. Like the Lisa, the
Macintosh too would make use of a
graphical user interface.
Introduced in January 1984 it was
an immediate success.
The GUI (Graphical User Interface)
made the system easy to use.
IBM (PC)
1981

On August 12, 1981 IBM
announced its own personal computer.
Using the 16 bit Intel 8088
microprocessor, allowed for increased
speed and huge amounts of memory.
Unlike the Altair that was sold as
unassembled computer kits, IBM sold
its "ready-made" machine through
retailers and by qualified salespeople.
IBM (PC)
1981

To satisfy consumer appetites and
to increase usability, IBM gave
prototype IBM PCs to a number of
major software companies.
For the first time, small companies
and individuals who never would have
imagined owning a "personal" computer
were now opened to the computer
world.
MICROSOFT (PC)
1983
MACINTOSH
(1984)

The Apple Macintosh debuts in
1984. It features a simple, graphical
interface, uses the 8-MHz, 32-bit
Motorola 68000 CPU, and has a builtin 9-inch B/W screen.
Digitization/ Binary Numbers
Analog Representations of Sound
Magnified phonograph grooves, viewed from
above:
The shape of the grooves
encodes the continuously
varying audio signal.
Analog to Digital Recording Chain
AD
C
Microphone converts acoustic to
electrical energy. It’s a transducer.
Continuously varying electrical energy is an
analog of the sound pressure wave.
ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) converts
analog to digital electrical signal.
Digital signal transmits binary numbers.
DAC (Digital to Analog Converter) converts digital
signal in computer to analog for your headphones.
Analog versus Digital
Analog
Continuous signal that mimics shape of
acoustic sound pressure wave
Digital
Stream of discrete numbers that
represent instantaneous amplitudes of
analog signal, measured at equally spaced
points in time.
Analog to Digital Conversion
Instantaneous amplitudes of continuous
analog signal, measured at equally spaced
points in time.
A series of “snapshots”
Analog to Digital Overview
Sampling Rate
How often analog signal is measured
[samples per second, Hz]
Example: 44,100 Hz
Sampling Resolution
[a.k.a. “sample word length,” “bit depth”]
Precision of numbers used for measurement:
the more bits, the higher the resolution.
Example: 16 bit
Sampling Rate
Determines the highest frequency that
you can represent with a digital signal.
Nyquist Theorem:
Sampling rate must be at least twice as high
as the highest frequency you want to
represent.
Capturing just the crest and trough of a
sine wave will represent the wave exactly.
Aliasing
What happens if sampling rate not high
enough?
A high frequency signal
sampled at too low a rate
looks like …
… a lower frequency signal.
That’s called aliasing or foldover. An
ADC has a low-pass anti-aliasing filter
to prevent this.
Common Sampling Rates
Which rates can represent the
range of frequencies audible by
(fresh) ears?
Sampling Rate
Uses
44.1 kHz (44100)
CD, DAT
48 kHz (48000)
DAT, DV, DVD-Video
96 kHz (96000)
DVD-Audio
22.05 kHz (22050)
Old samplers
Most software can handle all
these rates.
3-bit Quantization
A 3-bit binary (base 2) number has 23 = 8 values.
7
Amplitude
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Time — measure amp. at each tick of sample clock
A rough approximation
4-bit Quantization
A 4-bit binary number has 24 = 16 values.
14
Amplitude
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Time — measure amp. at each tick of sample clock
A better approximation
Quantization Noise
Round-off error: difference between actual
signal and quantization to integer values…
Random errors:
sounds like lowamplitude noise
The Digital Audio Stream
It’s just a series of sample numbers, to be
interpreted as instantaneous amplitudes: one
for every tick of the sample clock.
This is what appears in a sound file, along with
a header that indicates the sampling rate, bit
depth and other things.
Common Sampling Resolutions
Word length
Uses
8-bit integer
Low-res web audio
16-bit integer
CD, DAT, DV, sound files
24-bit integer
DVD-Video, DVD-Audio
32-bit floating point Software (usually only for
internal representation)
FIRST GENERATION
(1945-1956)

First generation computers were
characterized by the fact that operating
instructions were made-to-order for the
specific task for which the computer was to
be used. Each computer had a different
binary-coded program called a machine
language that told it how to operate. This
made the computer difficult to program and
limited its versatility and speed. Other
distinctive features of first generation
computers were the use of vacuum tubes
(responsible for their breathtaking size) and
magnetic drums for data storage.
SECOND GENERATION
(1956-1963)

Throughout the early 1960's,
there were a number of commercially
successful second generation
computers used in business,
universities, and government from
companies such as Burroughs, Control
Data, Honeywell, IBM, Sperry-Rand,
and others. These second generation
computers were also of solid state
design, and contained transistors in
place of vacuum tubes.
SECOND GENERATION
(1956-1963)
They also contained all the components we
associate with the modern day computer:
printers, tape storage, disk storage, memory,
operating systems, and stored programs. One
important example was the IBM 1401, which
was universally accepted throughout industry,
and is considered by many to be the Model T
of the computer industry. By 1965, most large
business routinely processed financial
information using second generation computers.
THIRD GENERATION
(1965-1971)
Though transistors were clearly an
improvement over the vacuum tube, they still
generated a great deal of heat, which
damaged the computer's sensitive internal
parts. The quartz rock eliminated this
problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas
Instruments, developed the integrated circuit
(IC) in 1958. The IC combined three
electronic components onto a small silicon disc,
which was made from quartz. Scientists later
managed to fit even more components on a
single chip, called a semiconductor.
THIRD GENERATION
(1965-1971)
As a result, computers became ever
smaller as more components were
squeezed onto the chip. Another thirdgeneration development included the
use of an operating system that
allowed machines to run many different
programs at once with a central
program that monitored and
coordinated the computer's memory.
FOURTH GENERATION
(1971-Present)
In 1981, IBM introduced its
personal computer (PC) for use in the
home, office and schools. The 1980's
saw an expansion in computer use in all
three arenas as clones of the IBM PC
made the personal computer even more
affordable. The number of personal
computers in use more than doubled
from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in
1982.
FOURTH GENERATION
(1971-1990)
Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being
used. Computers continued their trend toward
a smaller size, working their way down from
desktop to laptop computers (which could fit
inside a briefcase) to palmtop (able to fit
inside a breast pocket). In direct competition
with IBM's PC was Apple's Macintosh line,
introduced in 1984. Notable for its userfriendly design, the Macintosh offered an
operating system that allowed users to move
screen icons instead of typing instructions
Contemporary
Computers
Logic
Robotics and Automation
• Both involve: computers, physical world, geometry
• Both engage many disciplines
• “robota”
coined in 1920 (Capek)
– Emphasizes unpredictable environments like homes, undersea
• “automation” coined in 1948 (Ford Motors)
– Emphasizes predictable environments like factories, labs
robotics
automation
Short Films on Computing
Logic by Machine (Computer and
the Mind of Man)
http://www.archive.org/details/logic_by_machine_1
14 min
http://www.archive.org/details/logic_by_machine_2
15 min
Lev Manovich on New Media
What is New Media ?
New media are often defined as digital/computational. I'd like to explore an alternate definition where
digital/computational media are one example of a broader class of "New" media. Here's a sketch of the
argument:
1. medium: from latin: "medius": intervening element
an element that facilitates transformation from A to B
eg, change in form: clay, paint, plastic, ...
special case: an element that facilitates
communication between A and B. eg. printing press,, radio, internet, ...
thus: a medium is an agent for transformation.
2. consider two classes of medium:
singular:
can be used once: eg, paint, thermoset polymers
reconfigurable: can be reused: eg, radio, thermoplastic polymers (plastics)
3. reconfigurable media are essentially flexible, available for use (cf. Bestand, Gestell).
ie: reconfigurable media are tranformable agents
for transformation. (doubly transformative)
4. proposal: define "new" media as reconfigurable media
eg, new media are tranformable agents for transformation.
(always available, doubly transformative, postmodern technology)
examples: computers, the intert, nanotechnology, stem cells,
(includes digital/computational but is much broader)
We might define New Media as "Means without Ends".
Humanities
Philosophy
Rhetoric
Journalism
Education
iSchool
Art History
Architecture
Public Health
Film Studies
Theater
IEOR
BAMPFA
Music
EECS
Technology
Art Practice
ME
BioE
New Media Initiative
Art/Design
Mission
To critically analyze and help
shape developments in new
media from para-disciplinary and
global perspectives that
emphasize humanities and the
public interest.
bcnm.berkeley.edu
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Information was gathered from the
following sites:
http://www.pbs.org/nerds/timeli
ne/micro.html (Triumph Of The
Nerds)
http://www.digitalcentury.com/e
ncyclo/update/comp_hd.html
(Digital Century)
http://humlink.humanities.mcmas
ter.ca/~dalberto/comweb.htm
(History of Computers)
FIFTH GENERATION
(Future)
Many advances in the science of computer
design and technology are coming together to
enable the creation of fifth-generation
computers. Two such engineering advances are
parallel processing, which replaces von
Neumann's single central processing unit
design with a system harnessing the power of
many CPUs to work as one. Another advance is
superconductor technology, which allows the
flow of electricity with little or no resistance,
greatly improving the speed of information
flow.
FIFTH GENERATION
(Future)
Computers today have some
attributes of fifth generation
computers. For example, expert
systems assist doctors in making
diagnoses by applying the problemsolving steps a doctor might use in
assessing a patient's needs. It will
take several more years of
development before expert systems
are in widespread use.