Transcript Recap
Recap
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Cost and Trends in Cost
•
Cost is an important factor in the design of any
computer system (except may be supercomputers)
• Cost: amount spent by manufacturer to produce a
finished good
•
Cost changes over time
– The learning curve
– High volume products lowers manufacturing costs
(Double the volume will decrease the cost by 10%)
– Commodity products decreases cost as well
• Commodities: identical products sold by many vendors in
large volumes (keyboards, DRAMs) – low cost because of
high volume and competition among suppliers
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Processor Prices
3
Memory Prices
4
Trends in Cost:
The Price of Pentium4 and PentiumM
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Wafer, Die, IC
http://www.intel.com/museum/online/funfacts.htm
Wafer
Processing
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IC
Die
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Packaging
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Cost of Integrated Circuits
Cost of die Cost of testing die Cost of packaging
Cost of IC
Final test yield
Cost of wafer
Cost of die
Dies per wafer Die yield
Dingwall’s Equation
Defects per unit area Die area
Die yield Wafer yield 1
2
Wafer diameter
2
Wafer diameter Test dies per wafer
Dies per wafer
Die area
2 Die area
Cost of testing per hour Average die test time
Cost of testing die
Die yield
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Explanations
Second term in “Dies per wafer”
corrects for the rectangular dies
near the periphery of round wafers
“Die yield” assumes a simple empirical
model: defects are randomly distributed
over the wafer, and yield is inversely
proportional to the complexity of the
fabrication process (indicated by )
=3-4 for modern processes implies that
cost of die is proportional to (Die area)4
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Yield
Manufacturing
Defects
13/16 working chips
81.25% yield
1/4 working chips
25.0% yield
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Yield (2)
Assuming $250 per wafer:
$5.92 per die
$58.82 per die
52 die, 81.25% yield
42.25 working parts / wafer
17 die, 25.0% yield
4.25 working parts / wafer
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Where Do The Transistors Go?
• Logic contributes a (vanishingly) small fraction of the
number of transistors
• Memory (mostly on-chip cache) is the biggest fraction
• Computing is free, communication is expensive
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Cost of Computers
What is Relationship of Cost to Price?
List
Price
Average
Discount
25~40%
ASP
Component
Cost
100%
Gross
Margin
45~65%
Gross
Margin
Direct Cost
20~22%
Direct Cost
10~11%
Direct Cost
Component
Cost
72~80%
Component
Cost
25~44%
Component
Cost
+(25~40)%
+(82~186)%
34~39%
6~8%
15~33%
+(33~66)%
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Component Cost vs. System Price
• Increase CPU cost by $100
• Then
– Direct costs go up by ~$20
– Indirect costs go up by ~$40
– Discount goes up by ~$50
• List price of the system is now $210 up
– Then, if fewer get sold because of this,
indirect costs go up…
• Relationship is very complex
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Cost and Price
• A $1000 increase in cost may result in a $3000 increase
in price – hence, important to understand the relationship
• The relationship is complex – for example, a company may
under-price a product that has heavy competition and
over-price a product that has no competition
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Contribution of IC Costs to Total System Cost
Subsystem
Fraction of total cost
Cabinet: sheet metal, plastic, power supply, fans,
cables, nuts, bolts, manuals, shipping box
6%
Processor
22%
DRAM
5%
Video card
5%
Motherboard
5%
Processor board subtotal
37%
Keyboard and mouse
3%
Monitor
19%
Hard disk (20 GB)
9%
DVD drive
6%
I/O devices subtotal
37%
Software (OS + Office)
20%
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Desktop Prices
Vendor
Model
Processor
Clock speed
MHz
Price
Compaq
Presario 7000
AMD Athlon
1,400
$2,091
Dell
Precision 420
Intel Pentium III
1,000
$3,834
Dell
Precision 530
Intel Pentium 4
1,700
$4,175
HP
Workstation c3600
PA 8600
552
$12,631
IBM
RS6000 44P/170
IBM III-2
450
$13,889
Sun
Sunblade 100
UltraSPARC II-e
500
$2,950
Sun
Sunblade 1000
UltraSPARC III
750
$9,950
All systems have similar configurations – price variations due to expandability,
expensive disks/memory/processor/OS, commoditization
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Server Prices
System
CPUs
Price
IBM xSeries 370 c/s
280 Pentium III
$15.5 M
Compaq AlphaServer GS 320
32 Alpha 21264
$10.3 M
Fujitsu PRIMEPOWER 20000
48 SPARC64 GP
$9.7 M
IBM pSeries 680 7017-S85
24 IBM RS64-IV
$7.5 M
HP 9000 Enterprise Server
48 HP PA-RISC 8600
$8.5 M
IBM iSeries 400 840-2420
24 iSeries400 Model 840
$8.4 M
Dell PowerEdge 6400
3 Pentium III
$131 K
IBM xSeries 250 c/s
4 Pentium III
$297 K
Compaq Proliant ML570
4 Pentium III
$375 K
HP NetServer LH 6000
6 Pentium III
$373 K
NEC Express 5800/180
8 Pentium III
$683 K
HP 9000/L2000
4 PA-RISC 8500
$368 K
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