Transcript Ch. 7 PP - Curwensville Area School District

Chapter 6
Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages:
Creating a New European Society and Culture
(476–1000)
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
The veneration of icons was central to Byzantine
religious life, and Byzantine missionaries brought this
practice with them as they spread Christianity
throughout Eastern Europe from the ninth century
onward. A masterpiece of Byzantine art, the icon of “Our
Lady of Vladimir” was sent from Constantinople to Kiev
(Ukraine) in the early twelfth century and was later
transferred to Moscow in 1395 to protect the city from
Mongol attacks. It depicts a sorrowful Virgin Mary
gazing intently at the viewer while the infant Jesus
raises his head to his mother’s cheek.
The Granger Collection, NYC—All rights reserved
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Byzantine Empire (324–1453)
Periods:
Construction of Constantinople in 324 to
start of Arab expansion and spread of
Islam in 632—(greatest political &
cultural achievements)
632 to conquest of Asia Minor by Seljuk
Turks in 1071 (or, fall of Constantinople
to Western Crusaders in 1204)
1071/1204 to fall of Constantinople to
Ottoman Turks in 1453
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Byzantine Empire under
Justinian (r. 527–565)
Co-ruled absolutely with wife
Theodora
Constantinople: pop. 350,000,
largest city, crossroads of Asia &
Europe
Centralized government: “one God,
one empire, one religion”
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Byzantine Empire under
Justinian (r. 527–565)
Law reform: four-volume Corpus
Juris Civilis (“body of civil law”)—
used as a model through the
Renaissance
Church of Hagia Sophia—Justinian’s
most famous monument
Briefly recaptured North Africa, Italy,
southern Spain
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Map 6–1 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF
JUSTINIAN’S DEATH The inset shows the empire in
1025, before its losses to the Seljuk Turks.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Built during the reign of Justinian, Hagia Sophia
(Church of Holy Wisdom) is a masterpiece of Byzantine
and world architecture. After the Turkish conquest of
Constantinople in 1453, Hagia Sophia was transformed
into a mosque with four minarets, still visible today.
© Steve Vidler/Alamy
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Byzantine Christianity
A.k.a. Eastern Orthodoxy
Missionaries (later saints) Cyril &
Methodius create Greek-based
alphabet for Slavs of the Balkans—
Cyrillic
 Old Church Slavonic—international
Slavic language through which
Byzantine Christianity spread in
Eastern Europe
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
The Court of Empress Theodora. Byzantine early
Christian mosaic showing the union of political and
spiritual authority in the person of the Empress.
San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy. Photograph © Scala/Art
Resource
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Persians and Muslims
During the reign of Emperor
Heraclius (r. 610-640), the Byzantine
Empire resisted Persian advances
successfully.
However, by 632, Islamic invasions
overran much of the empire.
Not until Leo III of the Isaurian
dynasty (r. 717-740) did the
Byzantines successfully repel Arab
armies.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Persians and Muslims (cont.)
Repelling the Arab armies forced a
major reconstruction of the
diminished empire.
The new system made possible a
more disciplined and flexible use of
military power.
Byzantium went on the offense,
leading to an age of art, culture and
literature.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Persians and Muslims (cont.)
The rapid territorial expansion may
have overtaxed the empire’s
strength.
In the eleventh century, Byzantine
fortunes rapidly reversed.
By 1261, Byzantine power was a
shadow of its former self, the empire
was impoverished, and the Turks
became a constant threat.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Islam
Muhammad (570–632)
Marriage to wealthy widow in Mecca at
25
Religious epiphany at 40—God’s word
recited to him by angel Gabriel
Revelations collected by followers into
Islamic holy book, the Qur’an (“a
reciting”), 650–651
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Islam (cont.)
Muhammad (570–632)
Summons all Arabs to submit to God’s
will
• Muslim = submissive, surrendering
• Islam = submission
Muhammad, “the Prophet,” believed to
be last of God’s prophets
Driven from Mecca, 622, returned with
an army and conquered, 624
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
A Muslim and a Christian play the ud or lute together,
from a thirteenth-century Book of Chants in the Escorial
Monastery of Madrid. Medieval Europe was deeply
influenced by Arab–Islamic culture, transmitted
particularly through Spain. Some of the many works in
Arabic on musical theory were translated into Latin and
Hebrew, but the main influence on music came from the
arts of singing and playing spread by minstrels.
A Moor and a Christian playing the lute, miniature in a
book of music from the “Cantigas” of Alphonso X “the
Wise” (1221–1284). Thirteenth century (manuscript).
Monastero de El Excorial, El Escorial,
Spain/index/Bridgeman Art Library
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Islamic Divisions
7th c. disputes:
Line of succession to Muhammad
(caliphate)
Doctrinal issues of inclusivity
Shi’a: backers of caliph Ali; developed
theology of martyrdom; embattled
minority in mainstream Islam
Sunnis (followers of sunna,
“tradition”): majority centrist; loyalty to
Islamic community above all
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Islamic Empires
Muslims attacked fatigued Byzantine &
Persian empires, overrunning Persia by
651
By 750, Muslim Empire stretched from
Spain through North Africa & Arabia to
India
Halted in Western Europe by Charles
Martel at Poitiers in 732
Capital moved from Mecca to
Damascus, then to Baghdad in 750
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Map 6–2 Muslim Conquests and Domination of the
Mediterranean to about 750 C.E. The rapid spread of
Islam (both as a religion and as a political-military
power) is shown here. Within 125 years of Muhammad’s
rise, Muslims came to dominate Spain and all areas
south and east of the Mediterranean.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Byzantium’s Contribution to
Islamic Civilization
The caliphates of Islam regarded
Byzantium as a model.
The splendor of court ceremony,
architecture and craftsmanship, and art
and iconography were admired.
Muslims wanted to understand faith
on an intellectual level.
Developed interest in logic,
philosophy, and medicine
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Muslims are enjoined to live by the divine law, or
Shari’a, and have a right to have disputes settled by an
arbiter of the Shari’a. Here we see a husband
complaining about his wife before the state-appointed
judge, or qadi. The wife, backed up by two other
women, points an accusing finger at the husband. In
such cases, the first duty of the qadi, who should be a
learned person of faith, is to try to effect a reconciliation
before the husband divorces his wife, or the wife herself
seeks a divorce.
Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
The European Debt to Islam
Arab invasions contributed to the
formation of Western Europe.
Diverting the attention of the
Byzantine Empire allowed two
Germanic peoples to gain
ascendancy.
Franks
Lombards
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
The European Debt to Islam
(cont.)
Arabs taught Western inhabitants
about irrigation, tanning leather, and
refining silk.
Islamic scholars translated Greek
works on astronomy, mathematics,
and medicine into Latin.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
On the Eve of Frankish
Ascendancy
5th & 6th c. decline
7th c.: Byzantine Empire occupied
with Islamic threat, leaving most of
the West to Franks & Lombards
Western culture forming from GrecoRoman, Judeo-Christian, and
barbarian heritages
Decline of temporal powers matched
by rise of Christian church
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Germanic Migrations
“Invasion” preceded by centuries of
Roman-Germanic coexistence
Ended with influx of Visigoths, starting
376, pushed by Huns from Asia
Visigoths reached southern Gaul, Spain
Vandals gained control of northwest
Africa and western Mediterranean
Burgundians settled in Gaul
Franks settled in north-central Gaul
Angles & Saxons in England
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Barbarian Rule
410—Visigoths under Alaric sack
Rome
452—Attila the Hun invades Italy
455—Vandals sack Rome
476—Traditional end of Roman
Empire when barbarian Odovacer
deposes last Western emperor,
Romulus Augustulus
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Map 6–3 Barbarian Migrations into the West in the
Fourth and Fifth Centuries The forceful intrusion of
Germanic and non-Germanic barbarians into the
Roman Empire from the last quarter of the fourth
century through the fifth century made for a constantly
changing pattern of movement and relations. The map
shows the major routes taken by the usually unwelcome
newcomers and the areas most deeply affected by the
main groups.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Barbarian Rule (cont.)
Barbarians saturate Western empire
by end of 5th century
Roman and Germanic cultures mix,
Roman more influential
Visigoths, Ostrogoths, & Vandals
entered West as Arian Christians
Franks of Gaul convert to Catholic
(Roman) Christianity around 500,
others to follow
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Western Society and
Christianity
Church government modeled on
Roman administration: centralized &
hierarchical
Cathedral became center of urban
life, local bishop highest authority,
with pope in Rome filling vacuum left
by departed Roman emperors
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Monastic Culture
Monks growing in number & respect
With rise of Church, monasticism
replaces martyrdom as highest
tribute
Life of chastity, poverty, obedience
Hermit monasticism followed by
communal monasticism—rise of
monasteries
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Monastic Culture (cont.)
Benedict of Nursia
Founder of Benedictine order, 529
Monks Christianized England & Germany
Rule for Monasteries
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Papal Primacy
Early state control of church in East
& West (Emperor Constantine)
Supplanted by doctrine of papal
primacy: raised Roman pope to
position of supremacy in the church
Title pontifex maximus: “supreme
priest”
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Religious Division of
Christendom
Differences between East & West:
Nature of the Trinity
Place of images in worship—Iconoclasm
Eastern emperors’ claims to both secular &
religious sovereignty—Caesaropapism
Also: Eastern church denied existence of
Purgatory, allowed divorce, permitted
priests (but not bishops) to marry, and
conducted services in the local language
(vs. Latin or Greek)
Schism of 1054—pope & patriarch
excommunicate each other
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
An eleventh-century Byzantine manuscript shows an
iconoclast whiting out an image of Christ. The
Iconoclastic Controversy was an important factor in the
division of Christendom into separate Latin and Greek
branches.
The Granger Collection, NYC—All rights reserved.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Kingdom of the Franks
Frankish Merovingian dynasty
established under Clovis (ca. 466–
511) in Gaul
Franks occupied modern France,
Belgium, Netherlands, western
Germany
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Kingdom of the Franks (cont.)
Beginning of most persistent
medieval political problem: central
rule versus local power
Carolingian dynasty supplants
Merovingian, 751, under Pepin the
Short
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Frankish Church
Church dependent on Frankish
protection against East and
Lombards
Carolingian policy under Charles
Martel (d. 741): convert the
conquered to Roman Christianity
755: Franks defeat Lombards, giving
pope lands around Rome, creating
the Papal States
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Aachen cathedral.
© Andrew Moss/Alamy
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Charlemagne (r. 768–814)
Son of Pepin the Short; continued
policy of protecting Rome &
conquering land in the north
774, defeated Lombards in northern
Italy & assumed title “King of the
Lombards”
Saxons subjugated, Christianized,
eastern Avars destroyed
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Charlemagne (cont.)
Muslims driven beyond Pyrenees
Kingdom of Charlemagne ultimately
covered modern France, Belgium,
Holland, Switzerland, western
Germany, northern Italy, part of
Spain, & Corsica
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Map 6–4 THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE TO 814
Building on the successes of his predecessors,
Charlemagne greatly increased the Frankish domains.
Such traditional enemies as the Saxons and the
Lombards fell under his sway.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Charlemagne (cont.)
Desired to be “universal emperor” of
a Frankish Christian empire
Constructed palace city at Aachen,
imitating ancient Roman &
contemporary Eastern courts
Used church to promote social
stability & order
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Charlemagne (cont.)
Crowned emperor by Pope Leo III in
800; began what came to be known
as the Holy Roman Empire—
considered revival of old Roman
Empire, based in Germany after 870
Governed through about 250 counts
who maintained local armies,
collected dues, & administered
justice through local law court or
mallus; problem of loyalty
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Charlemagne (cont.)
Missi domenici: royal envoys sent
to oversee counts; marginally
effective
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Carolingian Renaissance
& Decline
Europe’s best scholars brought to
Aachen to develop culture &
education; also improve imperial
administration
Alcuin of York (735–804): AngloSaxon director of palace school;
brought classical & Christian learning
in schools run by monks
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
A Multicultural Book Cover Carolingian education, art,
and architecture served royal efforts to unify the
kingdom by fusing inherited Celtic-Germanic and
Greco-Roman-Byzantine cultures. Charlemagne, his
son, and grandsons decorated their churches with a
variety of art forms, among them illuminated
manuscripts, such as the bejeweled metalwork that
became the binding of the Lindau Gospels (c. 870).
Art Resource/The Pierpont Morgan Library
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Breakup of the Carolingian
Empire
Weakness of empire was regionalism; local
counts look to self-interest
Louis the Pious (r. 814–840): problem of
dividing empire among his sons
Treaty of Verdun, 843: Carolingian Empire
divided among warring sons
West (France): Charles the Bald
Middle: Lothar (Lotharingia)
East (Germany): Louis the German
Middle kingdom split again at Lothar’s death,
inciting conflict between eastern & western
kingdoms (Germany & France) that continued
into modern times
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Map 6–5 THE TREATY OF VERDUN, 843, AND THE
TREATY OF MERSEN, 870 The Treaty of Verdun
divided the kingdom of Louis the Pious among his three
feuding children: Charles the Bald, Lothar, and Louis
the German. After Lothar’s death in 855, his lands and
titles were divided among his three sons: Louis,
Charles, and Lothar II. When Lothar II, who had
received his father’s northern kingdom, died in 870,
Charles the Bald and Louis the German claimed the
middle kingdom and divided it between themselves in
the Treaty of Mersen.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims
New External Threats
Vikings
Magyars
Muslims
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Map 6–6 VIKING, ISLAMIC, AND MAGYAR
INVASIONS TO THE ELEVENTH CENTURY Western
Europe was sorely beset by new waves of outsiders
from the ninth to the eleventh century. From north, east,
and south, a stream of invading Vikings, Magyars, and
Muslims brought the West at times to near collapse and,
of course, gravely affected institutions within Europe.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
This seventy-five-foot-long Viking burial ship from the
early ninth century is decorated with beastly figures. It
bore a dead queen, her servant, and assorted sacrificed
animals to the afterlife. The bodies of the passengers
were confined within a burial cabin at midship
surrounded with a treasure-trove of jewels and
tapestries.
Dorling Kindersley Media Library. Universitets
Oldsaksamling © Dorling Kindersley
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Feudal Society
Middle Ages: chronic absence of
effective central government,
constant threat of famine, disease,
invasion; weaker sought protection
of stronger
Feudal society: social, political,
military, economic system that arose
from these conditions
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Feudal Society (cont.)
Society dominated by warlords
Vassals: men promising service to
more powerful men in exchange for
protection; developed into
professional military class (knights)
Terms: fealty, fief, scutage
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Daily Life & Religion
Manor: village farm, center of rural agrarian
economy, tended by peasant tenant farmers
Demesne: the part of the land tended for the
lord of the manor; usu. 1/4 to 1/3 of the land
Peasants: freemen or serfs; paid various dues
in kind to lord
Three-field system of crop rotation: summer
crops in one field, winter crops in next field,
third field fallow
Vassal could swear fealty to more than one
lord: problem of loyalty
“Liege lord”: one to whom loyalty is owed above all
others
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
The Lord of the Manor Dining. © The British Library
Board. All Rights Reserved 42130, f.208
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Kitchen Scene; Chopping Meat. © The British Library
Board. All Rights Reserved 42130 f207v
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Fragmentation and Divided
Loyalty
Hereditary possession became a
legally recognized principle in the
ninth century and laid the basis for
claims to real ownership.
“Liege lord” – the one master the
vassal must obey even against other
masters
Personal loyalty and service became
secondary to acquiring property.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved
Fragmentation and Divided
Loyalty (cont.)
The genius of feudal government lay
in its adaptability.
The process embraced a wide
spectrum of people.
The foundations of a modern nationstate would emerge.
The Western Heritage, Eleventh Edition
Kagan | Ozment | Turner | Frank
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007
Pearson Education
All Rights Reserved