Transcript The Language of Composition

Chapter 1
An Introduction to Rhetoric
Key Elements of Rhetoric
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Rhetor: The speaker who uses elements of
rhetoric effectively in oral or written text.
Rhetoric: The art of analyzing all the choices
involving language that a writer, speaker,
reader, or listener might make a situation so
that the text becomes meaningful, purposeful
and effective; the specific features of texts,
written or spoken, that cause them to be
meaningful, purposeful, and effective for
readers or listeners in a situation.
Key Elements of Rhetoric
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Rhetorical Choices: The particular choices a
writer or speaker makes to achieve meaning,
purpose, or effect.
Rhetorical situation: the convergence in a
situation of exigency (the need to write),
audience and purpose.
Rhetorical Triangle: more on this later.
Read aloud the speech by Lou Gehrig that he
gave at an Appreciation Day held in his honor
on July 4, 1939.
Listen once, then listen again and then we will
look at the speech from a rhetorical
perspective.
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Rhetoric is always situational: it has a context
– the occasion or the time and place it was
written or spoken – and a purpose or goal that
the speaker or writer wants to achieve.
Rhetoric Man is effective
because he has an occasion
and a goal or purpose. Think
about it, without them, what use
is he? He just looks like a rocker
from the 80s.
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When we read any text, we ask about the
context in which it was written.
Then we consider the purpose.
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Is the speaker trying to
 win agreement?
 persuade us to action?
 evoke sympathy?
 make us laugh?
 inform, provoke, celebrate, repudiate?
Sometimes context arises from
current events or cultural bias.
 What is bias?
 Ex. Someone writes about freedom of speech in
a community that has experienced hate graffiti
must take that context into account and adjust
the purpose of the piece so as not to offend the
audience.
 Think of some examples where you would
consider the context of what you have to say.
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Main idea = thesis, claim or assertion
His main idea is a clear, focused statement.
 Gehrig knows his subject—baseball
 As a speaker he has credibility and the
sympathy of the crowd.
Why is _______ effective is a question we will ask
and answer ad infinitum, ad nauseum.
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Here it is, the Aristotelian rhetorical triangle
Speaker
Audience
Subject
Speaker
Audience
Subject
and then what do you do?
You tell me! What are some arguments you might
present today?
Dress code? Eating in classrooms? Cell phones?
Pick one
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Then you evaluate what you already know
about it
What others have said about it
And what kind of evidence or proof will
sufficiently develop your position.
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Aristotle called the person that a writer took on
as a speaker as a persona.
A persona is the character the speaker creates
when he or she writes or speaks
This depends on the context, purpose, subject
and audience.
Are you speaking as a poet, comedian, scholar,
expert, critic, citizen, etc.
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Before you speak, you must consider your
audience.
What do they know about your topic?
What do they feel about your topic?
How will you communicate with them to listen
to you?
Speaker
Audience
Subject
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Learn the terms then forget them….
Ethos- the credibility of the speaker
Logos-the reasoning or logic in the speaker’s
argument.
Pathos- Emotion of the speech (not necessarily
the speaker’s, but more explanation in a
minute.)
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Ethos = Ethical appeal
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Logos = Logical appeal
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Pathos = Emotional appeal
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Ethos = Ethics=Ethical appeal
If someone is ethical they have credibility.
Ethical appeal has to do with the speaker. Is
the speaker ethically credible?
This does not mean whether or not the speaker
is a good person.
It means the speaker appeals to the audience as
a credible source.
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If a speaker wants to talk to you about
adolescent alcoholism, what kind of speaker
would have the most ethical appeal?
If a teacher wants to teach you about algebra,
what kind of teacher would have the most
ethical appeal?
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So what is the ethical appeal of Lou Gehrig?
In some cases, a speaker’s reputation
immediately establishes ethos.
For example, the speaker may be a scholar in
Russian history and economics as well as a
secretary of state.
In most cases, the speaker establishes ethos by
making a good impression.
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That impression may result from a tone of
reason and goodwill
Or from the type and thoroughness of
information presented.
The speaker’s ethos—expertise and knowledge,
experience, training, sincerity, or a combination
of these—gives the audience a reason for
listening.
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Logos = Logic = Logical Appeal
Appealing to logos means having a clear main
idea or thesis, with specific details, examples,
facts, statistical data, or expert testimony as
support.
OK trekkies, you get this one. Spock would
never say anything that was not full of Logical
Appeal. He always backed up what he said
with facts or logic in reasoning.
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Gehrig’s speech is full of logic.
Thesis: “he is the luckiest man on the face of
the earth” and he supports it with two points.
Can you find the two points?
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1. his seventeen years of playing baseball and
2. his belief that he has “never received
anything but kindness and encouragement
from [his] fans.”
Specifically, he has worked with good people
on the field, he’s been part of a sterling team,
and he has the “blessing” of a supportive
family.
Yet, he got a “bad break.”
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What assumption or underlying belief, links
these seemingly contrasting ideas?
First, what are the ideas that are in contrast?
Second, what does he and his audience
assume?
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He is lucky even though he’s had a bad break
(contrast)
He assumes, as his audience does, that bad
breaks are a natural part of life. (assumption)
Acknowledge a counterargument.
to anticipate objections or opposing views.
 You agree (concede) that an opposing
argument may be true, but then you deny
(refute) the validity of all or part of the
argument.
 THIS STRENGTHENS YOUR ARGUMENT!!!
It shows you really thought about it.
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Pathos = emotion = emotional appeal
Does the writing appeal or create emotions in
the reader?
Too much emotional appeal is rarely effective,
but if a skilled writer tells an anecdote or uses
certain figurative language, he or she can create
an emotional appeal to the audience.
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Does Gehrig use emotional appeal
(pathos)?
How does he do it?
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1. He speaks for himself, someone already well
loved. He uses “I” often.
2. he uses words with strong positive
connotations: greatest, wonderful, honored,
grand, blessing.
He uses one image—tower of strength–an
image his audience would understand and
probably use themselves.
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An argument that appeals only to the emotions
is by definition weak—it’s generally considered
propaganda.
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A striking photograph may strengthen an
argument. Advertisers certainly make the most
of photos and other visual images to persuade
audiences.
So….what do you do if your audience you are
writing for can’t see a photograph?
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Read an argument that appeared in a
newspaper and analyze the elements we’ve just
discussed. The article you will read appeared
in the Washington Post on Mother’s Day in
2006. Jody Heyman takes an interesting
approach: she organizes her main argument
around a counter argument.
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Our government (she is doing this for us.)
“collected data—for Harvard University’s
Project on Global Working Families and at
McGill University.”
Her biographical note states that Heyman was
the director or founder of each project
She indicates she has written a book on the
topic
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Why is this significant?
Would she be credible with an audience in a
more conservative outlook, like Texas or
Alabama?
Why or why not?
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She uses facts and figures, presumably from
the data she collected.
She uses contrast with the facts in other
countries.
She frames her viewpoint not as a women’s
rights issue but as an economic one.
She appeals to reason by analyzing cause and
effect.
She deals with the central objections and calls
the counterarguments to her “myths.” (Note
the connotation of the word myth.)
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Where is it?
What about her occasion?
What is significant about it for her article?
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Read his letter to Phyllis Wright who asked
him if scientists pray, and if so, what do they
pray for.
How rhetorically effective do you find
Einstein’s response?
Explain your answer in terms of subject,
speaker, audience; context and purpose; and
appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos.
Visual Rhetoric is often satirical or sarcastic and critical.
Although political cartoons are often satiric, they may also comment
without sarcasm or criticism.
What is the subject?
Who is the audience?
What is his purpose?
Who is the speaker?
What is the context?
What establishes his ethical appeal?
What establishes his emotional appeal?
What is the logic in the cartoon?
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Analyze a political cartoon in terms of the
rhetorical triangle and its appeals to logos,
pathos, and ethos. As part of your analysis of
audience note if possible where the cartoon
first appeared and describe that source’s
political leanings. Finally, examine the
interaction of written text and visual images.
One or two paragraphs should be sufficient.
This is just an analysis not an argument.
Book 24 of Homer’s epic The Iliad
The story of
the Trojan War, the Greek warrior Achilles has
defeated the Trojan prince Hector. Achilles not only
refuses to return his rival’s body to troy, but he also
dishonored it by lashing it to a chariot and pulling it
through the dirt.
Priam’s speech
Remember your own father,
It is for him that I have come
Achilles, in your godlike youth: his years
Among these ships, to beg him back from
Like mine are many, and he stands upon
you,
The fearful doorstep of old age. He, too,
And I bring ransom without stint.
Is hard pressed it may be, by those around him, Achilles, be reverent toward the great gods!
And take
There being no one able to defend
Pity on me, remember your own father.
Him from bane of war and ruin. Ah, but he
Think me more pitiful by far, since I
May nonetheless shear news of you alive,
Have brought myself to do what no man
And so with glad heart hope through all his dayselse
For sight of his dear son, come back from Troy, Has done before—to lift to m y lips the
hand
While I have deathly fortune…
Of one who killed my son.
And he who stood alone among them all,
Their champion, and Troy’s, ten days ago
You killed him, fighting for his land, my prince,
Hector.
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Who is Priam’s audience?
What does he know is his audience’s attitude to
his subject?
What is his ethical appeal? Does his typical one
apply here?
What does he appeal to instead that Achilles
can respect?
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Which kind of other appeal is most useful
here? Logical appeal or emotional appeal
What is his logical appeal?
Why does he save it for last?
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When you write or analyze, consider how the
essay and its individual paragraphs or sections
are arranged.
HOW A WRITER STRUCTURES THE
ARGUMENT WITHIN A FRAMEWORK
DEPENDS UPON HIS OR HER INTENDED
PURPOSE AND EFFECT
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The introduction – introduces the read to the
subject. In latin, the word exordium means
“beginning a web.” No matter how long it
piques the interest of the reader. This is where
the writer often establishes his or her ethical
appeal. Why is this important in this spot?
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The narration provides factual information and
background material on the subject at hand.
The level of detail a writer uses depends upon
the audience’s knowledge of the subject. This
often appeals to emotions because often the
writer tries to make the audience have an
emotional response to the importance of an
issue.
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The confirmation, usually the major part of the
text, includes the development or the proof
needed to make the writer’s case—the nuts and
bolts of an essay. This contains the most
specific and concrete detail in the text. This has
the strongest appeal to logos.
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The refutation addresses the counterargument.
It is often a bridge between the writer’s proof
and conclusion. This is often placed near the
end, but it may be placed anywhere in the
writing.
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The conclusion brings the essay to a close. It
can be one or several paragraphs. Here the
writer usually appeals to emotions and
reminds the reader of the ethos established
earlier. Do not repeat what came before, but
make sure the last words and ideas of a text are
those the audience is MOST LIKELY TO
REMEMBER
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Read the piece written by Sandra Day
O’Connor, a former Supreme Court justice, and
Roy Romer, a superintendent of the Los
Angeles Unified School District
First number your paragraphs (get in this
habit.)
Label the Introduction, Narration,
Confirmation, Refutation and Conclusion
Circle the paragraphs for each part.
Use a PENCIL so you can revise if needed
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What is her ethical appeal?
How is the reader drawn in or made to care
about the issue in the introduction?
In the narration, paragraphs 3-6, what
additional information do they provide?
What does this establish?
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The confirmation, paragraphs 7-12, what do
they use to convince the reader to support the
case
What is O’Connor’s refutation?
What final statement does she make?
Is this something the reader will remember?
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Narration
Writers often use narration as a way to enter
into their topics. Everyone loves a good story.
(Remember that!)
In the following example, Rebecca Walker tells
a story about her son to lead into her
explanation of why she put together the
anthology Putting Down the Gun (p. 412).
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Description
Description emphasizes the senses by painting
a picture of how something looks, sounds,
smells, tastes, or feels.
Description is often used to establish the mood
of the piece. Mood plays in to the message and
persuasion.
Listen to an excerpt from “Serving in Florida”
then Read “Shooting an Elephant” by George
Orwell.
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Process analysis
This explains how something works, how to do
something or how something was done, We
use this when we explain how to bake bread,
set up an Excel spreadsheet, etc.
The key to successful process analysis is clarity:
it’s important to explain a subject clearly and
logically, with transitions that mark the
sequence of major steps, stages, or phases of
the process
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Listen to the essay “Transsexual Frogs.”
The writer uses process analysis to explain the
research of Tyrone Hayes, a biologist at the
University of California at Berkley
investigating the impact of the pesticide
atrazine.
Identify the verbs that emphasize the process.
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Examples
Providing a series of examples—facts, cases or
instances—turns a general idea into a concrete
one.
You can use one long one or several in a row.
You are familiar with someone saying “Let me
give you an example.”
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Aristotle taught that examples are a type of
logical proof called induction.
That is a series of specific examples leads to a
general conclusion.
Read an excerpt from “I know Why the Caged
Bird Cannot Read”by Francine Prose.
Identify her argument.
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What point is she making?
How did she make it?
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Comparison and Contrast: juxtaposing two
things to highlight their similarities and
differences.
This is used often on examinations where you
have to discuss subtle differences.
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It is important for readers to sort material into
major categories.
Answer “What goes together and why?”
You may be asked to analyze and essay that
offers categories or to apply them.
Most of the time a writer’s task is to develop
his or her own categories and to find a
distinctive way of breaking down a larger idea
into parts.
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Read Amy Tan’s essay “Mother Tongue”
where she classifies the “Englishes” she speaks
into categories of public and private spheres.
Is she explicit or very clear about her categories
from the beginning?
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Often a definition is to clarify a term.
In discourse, however, often a writer will take
an entire essay to establish what is a definition
of something.
Read an excerpt from “In Search of the Good
Family” by Jane Howard. She analyzes ten
characteristics that define a family. Here is one:
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This depends upon crystal clear logic.
It is often signaled by a why in the title or
opening paragraph.
In “I know Why the Caged Bird Cannot Read”
Francine Prose sets out what she believes are
the causes for high school student’s lack of
enthusiasm for reading.
In the following paragraph, she explains the
positive effects of reading classical literature.
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http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/0
8/17/speech/