Transcript memory powerpoint

MEMORY
DO NOW 2/1/2016
• Find your “Dr. Chew Video Questions”
• Pick up a green handout from the podium
and complete it on your own.
• Goals for today:
– Complete Dr. Chew videos
– Introduction to MEMORY MODELS
– Brain Games—Pay Attention
– Reading Guide 1A (?)
Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful
Did you do better on the first or second
memory exercise?
Recall v. Recognition
• With recall- you must retrieve the
information from your memory (fill-in-the
blank tests).
• With recognition- you must identify the
target from possible targets (multiplechoice tests).
• Which is easier?
Chapter Overview
 Models of how memory
works
 Encoding, effortful and
automatic
 Sensory, short-term, and
working memory
 Long term storage, helped
by potentiation, the
hippocampus, and the
amygdala
 Encoding failure, storage
decay, and retrieval failure
 Memory construction,
misinformation, and
source amnesia
 Tips and lessons for
Why do we need to have memory?
 To retain useful skills, knowledge,
and expertise
 To recognize familiar people and
places
 To build our capacity to use
language
 To enjoy, share, and sustain culture
 To build a sense of self that
endures: what do I believe, value,
remember, and understand?
 To go beyond conditioning in
learning from experience,
including lessons from one’s past
and from the experiences of others
Studying Memory
Memory refers to the persistence of
learning over time, through the storage
and retrieval of information and skills.
Three behaviors show that memory is functioning.
 Recall is analogous to “fill-in-the-blank.” You retrieve
information previously learned and unconsciously
stored.
 Recognition is a form of “multiple choice.” You identify
which stimuli match your stored information.
 Relearning is a measure of how much less work it takes
you to learn information you had studied before, even if
you don’t recall having seen the information before.
How Does Memory Work?
An Information-Processing Model
Here is a simplified description of how memory works:
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
 Encoding: the information gets
into our brains in a way that allows
it to be stored
 Storage: the information is held in
a way that allows it to later be
retrieved
 Retrieval: reactivating and
recalling the information,
producing it in a form similar to
what was encoded
Models of Memory Formation
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)
1. Stimuli are recorded by our
senses and held briefly in
sensory memory.
2. Some of this information is
processed into short-term
memory and encoded through
rehearsal .
3. Information then moves into
long-term memory where it can
be retrieved later.
Modifying the Model:
 More goes on in
short-term memory
besides rehearsal; this
is now called working
memory.
 Some information
seems to go straight
from sensory
experience into longterm memory; this is
automatic processing.
Zooming In on the Model:
From Stimuli to Short-Term Memory
 Some of the stimuli we encounter are picked up by
our senses and processed by the sensory organs. This
generates information which enters sensory memory.
 Before this information vanishes from sensory
memory, we select details to pay attention to, and
send this information into working memory for
rehearsal and other processing.
Dual-Track Processing:
Explicit and Implicit Memories
So far, we have been
talking about explicit/
“declarative” memories.
These are facts and
experiences that we can
consciously know and
recall.
Our minds acquire this
information through effortful
processing. Explicit memories
are formed through studying,
rehearsing, thinking,
processing, and then storing
information in long-term
memory.
Some memories are formed
without going through all the
Atkinson-Shiffrin stages. These are
implicit memories, the ones we
are not fully aware of and thus
don’t “declare”/talk about.
These memories are typically
formed through automatic
processing. Implicit memories are
formed without our awareness
that we are building a memory,
and without rehearsal or other
processing in working memory.
Explicit and Implicit Memories
• Some information (like how you go to school
today )is AUTOMATICALLY PROCESSED. It skips
encoding and jumps directly into storage.
• These are IMPLICIT MEMORIES
• New, or unusual information (like a friend’s
new cell phone #) requires attention and
effort.
• These are EXPLICIT MEMORIES
Working Memory: Functions
The short-term memory is “working” in many ways.
 It holds information not just to rehearse it , but to process it (such
as hearing a word problem in math and doing it in your head).
Short-term memory integrates information from long-term memory
with new information coming in from sensory memory.
The Encoding and
Processing of Memory:
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory refers to the
immediate, very brief recording
of sensory information before it
is processed into short-term,
working, or long-term memory.

We very briefly capture a sensory memory, analogous to an echo or an image, of all the
sensations we take in.

How brief? Sensory memory consists of about a 3 to 4 second echo, or a 1/20th of a second
image.

Evidence of auditory sensory memory, called “echoic” memory, can occur after someone says,
“what did I just say?” Even if you weren’t paying attention, you can retrieve about the last eight
words from echoic memory.
Encoding Memory
Capacity of Short-Term
and Working Memory
 If some information is selected from
sensory memory to be sent to short-term
memory, how much information can we
hold there?
 George Miller (b. 1920) proposed that
we can hold 7 +/-2 information bits (for
example, a string of 5 to 9 letters).
 More recent research suggests that the
average person, free from distraction,
can hold about:

7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words.
Test:
–V M 3 C A Q 9 L D
Working Memory, which
uses rehearsal, focus,
analysis, linking, and
other processing, has
greater capacity than
short-term memory. The
capacity of working
memory varies; some
people have better
concentration.
Test: see how many of
these letters and
numbers you can recall
after they disappear.
No need for a hyphen
before the V.
Duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)
Lloyd Peterson and Margaret
Peterson wanted to know the
duration of short term memory?
Their experiment (1959):
1. People were given triplets of
consonants (e.g., “VMF”).
2. To prevent rehearsing, the
subjects had to do a distracting
task.
3. People were then tested at
various times for recall.
Result: After 12 seconds, most
memory of the consonants had
decayed and could not be
retrieved.
The Memory Process
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
Stages of Memory
Sequential Process
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Flash Drive
(Storage)
Monitor
(Retrieval)
All three processes must occur to remember and,
subsequently, to learn.
Encoding:
Effortful Processing Strategies
If we have short-term recall
of only 7 letters, but can
remember 5 words, doesn’t
that mean we could
remember more than 7
letters if we could group
them into words?
 This is an example of an
effortful processing
strategy, a way to encode
information into memory to
keep it from decaying and
make it easier to retrieve.
 Effortful processing is also
known as studying.
Examples:
 Chunking (grouping)
 Mnemonics: images,
maps, and peg-words
 Hierarchies/categories
 Rehearsal, especially
distributed practice
 Deep processing
 Semantic processing
 Making information
personally meaningful
 Can you remember
this list?
Automatic Processing
Some experiences go directly to long-term implicit memory
Some experiences are processed automatically into implicit
memory, without any effortful/working memory processing:

procedural memory, such as knowing how to ride a bike, and well-practiced
knowledge such as word meanings

conditioned associations, such as a smell that triggers thoughts of a favorite place

information about space, such as being able to picture where things are after walking
through a room

information about time, such as retracing a sequence of events if you lost something

information about frequency, such as thinking, “I just noticed that this is the third
texting driver I’ve passed today.”
Effortful Processing Strategies
Mnemonics
 Read: plane, cigar, due,
shall, candy, vague,
pizza, seem, fire, pencil
 Which words might be
easier to remember?
 Write down the words
you can recall.
 Lesson: we encode
better with the help of
images.
A mnemonic is a memory
“trick” that connects
information to existing
memory strengths such as
imagery or structure.
A peg word system refers
to the technique of visually
associating new words
with an existing list that is
already memorized along
with numbers. For
example, “due” can be
pictured written on a door,
and door = 4.
Effortful Processing Strategies
Deep/Semantic Processing
When encoding information, we are more likely to retain it if
we deeply process even a simple word list by focusing on the
semantics (meaning) of the words.
“Shallow,”
unsuccessful
processing
refers to
memorizing the
appearance or
sound of
words.
Effortful Processing Strategies
Making Information
Personally Meaningful
Memorize the following
words:
bold truck temper
green run
drama
glue chips knob
hard vent rope
 We can memorize a set of instructions more easily if we figure
out what they mean rather than seeing them as set of words.
 Memorizing meaningful material takes one tenth the effort of
memorizing nonsense syllables.
 Actors memorize lines (and students memorize poems) more
easily by deciding on the feelings and meanings behind the
words, so one line flows naturally to the next.
 The self-reference effect, relating material to ourselves, aids
encoding and retention.
 Now try again, but this time, consider how each word relates to
you.
Encoding- Getting information in
What we encode
Has to GET into our brains in order for us to use it
We don’t actually have a picture of Darth Vader in our brains…
we have some mental representation that the cognitive system
“understands.”
Same goes for letters/words.
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your school) is
automatically processed.
1. However novel information (friend’s new cellphone number or a new friend’s name) requires
attention and effort.
Automatic Processing
Enormous amount of information is processed
effortlessly due to parallel processing by us, like:
1. Space: While reading a textbook you automatically
encode the place of a picture on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note when the events
take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of how
often things that happened to you.
Effortful Processing
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Novel information committed to
memory requires effort, like
learning a concept from a text.
Such processing leads to durable
and accessible memories…the
adage of “practice makes perfect”
rings VERY true when it comes to
memory
Through enough rehearsal, what
was effortful becomes automatic.
•
Effortful Processing & Memory Effects
This is typically used when learning new things. It requires your attention, your
effort and:
Next-in-line-Effect: When your recall is better for what other people say but poor for a
person just before you in line.
▪
think about when you have had to read aloud in class…you are worried
about what you have to read and aren’t paying attention to what the person
before you said
• Rehearsal: can only be encoded into LTM with practice.
– Hint...cramming wont work.
Spacing Effect: We retain information better when our rehearsal is distributed over
time
▪
Studies have shown that if you study a bit each night, you’ll remember the
information better than if you cram the night before a test
Serial Position Effect: When your recall is
better for first and last items, but poor for
middle items on a list.
▪
Let’s try this one…
Write down as many U.S. President’s
names you can remember
The Presidents
Washington
J.Adams
Jefferson
Madison
Monroe
JQ Adams
Jackson
Van Buren
Harrison
Tyler
Polk
Taylor
Fillmore
Pierce
Buchanan
Lincoln
A.Johnson
Grant
Hayes
Garfield
Arthur
Cleveland
Harrison
Cleveland
McKinley
T.Roosevelt
Taft
Wilson
Harding
Coolidge
Hoover
FD.Roosevelt
Truman
Eisenhower
Kennedy
L.Johnson
Nixon
Ford
Carter
Reagan
Bush
Clinton
Bush Jr.
Dean
Serial Positioning Effect
• Our tendency to recall best the last and
first items in a list.
Presidents
Recalled
If we graph an average person remembers presidential list- it would
probably look something like this.
Effortful Processing Strategies
Chunking
 Why are credit card numbers broken into groups of
four digits? Four “chunks” are easier to encode
(memorize) and recall than 16 individual digits.
 Memorize: ACPCVSSUVROFLNBAQ XIDKKFCFBIANA
 Chunking: organizing data into manageable units
XID KKF CFB IAN AAC PCV S SU VRO FNB AQ
• Chunking works even better if we can assemble
information into meaningful groups:
X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q
X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q
Effortful Processing Strategies
Mnemonics
A mnemonic is a memory
 Read: plane, cigar, due,
shall, candy, vague,
pizza, seem, fire, pencil
 Which words might be
easier to remember?
 Write down the words
you can recall.
 Lesson: we encode
better with the help of
images.
“trick” that connects
information to existing memory
strengths such as imagery or
structure.
A peg word system refers to
the technique of visually
associating new words with an
existing list that is already
memorized along with
numbers. For example, “due”
can be pictured written on a
door, and door = 4.
Long-Term Memory
Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on capacity
range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of
information (Landauer, 1986).
The story of Rajan Mahadevan…recited the first 31,
811 digits of pi (the ratio between
the diameter and circumference of a circle)
which begins 3.14159 & continues on indefinitely
Neural Circuitry
Research began by looking at individuals who
had parts of the brain removed in “botched”
operations
●
H.M. had surgery for epileptic seizures… his
hippocampus and amygdala on both sides of the
brain were removed
●
Since the surgery in 1953, H.M. has been unable
to create new memories of the events in his life,
although his memories for events prior to the
operation remains normal
●
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KkaXNvzE4
pk
●
Brain structures involved in memory
Brain structures
Hippocampus – aids in the initial encoding of info. Aids in
learning and forming of new memories
●
Cerebral cortex – memories are changed into relatively
permanent memories
●
Amygdala – strengthens memories that have strong
emotional associations. Extreme aggression and fear emotion
● These emotional connections act as an aid for access
and retrieval
● The amygdala is probably what is responsible for the
persistent and troubling memories associated with PTSD
●
Where are memories stored?
Memories do not exist in ONE place in the
brain, but reside all over the brain
●
It depends upon the nature of the material being
learned…information storage appears to be linked to the
sites in the brain where the processing of that information
occurs
●
So if it is visual information, the memory
would be stored in the visual cortex…
●
Clive Wearing’s story
Flashbulb memory
• A clear moment of an
emotionally significant
moment or event.
• Where were you when?
• 1. You heard about 9/11
• 2. You heard about the death of
a family member
• 3. During the OJ chase