Transcript Hypothalamus

Review of Brain Structures and Functions
1
 Please take out your NOTES notebook
 Need a whiteboard and a marker
 If you don’t know something- jot the key term or
concept down in your NOTESHOMEWORK: then YOU look it up, study it, get a
youtube clip on it- and practice reviewing and
‘learning’ it – for your test is FRIDAY
THE BRAIN
2
Name 4 major..ANATOMICAL REGIONS


A. C??
B. D??
Thalamus
 Hypothalamus


C. B??
M???
 P??
 M???


D. C???
THE BRAIN
3
 ANATOMICAL REGIONS
 A. Cerebrum
 B. Diencephalon
Thalamus
 Hypothalamus


C. Brain Stem
Midbrain
 Pons
 Medulla oblongata


D. Cerebellum
THE BRAIN
4
FUNCTIONAL REGIONS



A. M??? AREAS- your actions-muscles/glands
B. S???? AREAS- taste, stretch, proprioception, smell
C. I????- HIGHER FUNCTIONS-process/filter/evaluate
THE BRAIN
5
 FUNCTIONAL REGIONS
 A. MOTOR AREAS
 B. SENSORY AREAS
 C. Integration-HIGHER FUNCTIONS
• MAJOR ANATOMICAL REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
– Cerebrum
– Diencephalon
– Brain Stem
– Cerebellum
1???
2???
3???
4???
5???
6
• MAJOR ANATOMICAL REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
– Cerebrum
– Diencephalon
– Brain Stem
– Cerebellum
7
The Brain
8
 Since the brain is so important, it is protected by
the s???l, c?? fluid which cushions it, and m???
which are membranes that surround the brain and
only let certain substances cross through to the
brain.
 The brain is one of the few organs that can only use
glucose to get ATP as its energy source. Therefore,
without some sugar in our bloodstream, the brain
will die. That’s one reason why proper nutrition is
so important.
The Brain
9
 Since the brain is so important, it is protected by
the skull, cerebrospinal fluid which cushions
it, and meninges which are membranes that
surround the brain and only let certain substances
cross through to the brain.
 The brain is one of the few organs that can only use
glucose to get ATP as its energy source. Therefore,
without some sugar in our bloodstream, the brain
will die. That’s one reason why proper nutrition is
so important.
The Brain
10
 By the way, geniuses have the same size brain as
everyone else; they are just more efficient at forming
synapses. They also have more synapses because
they have more dendrites. You can develop more
dendrites and synapses by keeping your brain
active by learning and reading new things.
 We don’t use 90% of our brains, we use 100%.
Fun Fact: -Scientists say the higher your I.Q. The more
you dream.
Name this brain region
11
 The brain is divided into parts, and is bilaterally





symmetrical.
In general, the left side controls the right half of the body,
and the right side of the brain controls the left half of the
body.
The largest portion is the ------, which makes up 80% of the
brain.
controls logical thought and conscious awareness of
the environment.
It is also the area responsible for the highest sensory
and motor activity.
is made up mostly of grey matter (cell bodies, dendrites,
and unmyelinated axons).
CEREBRUM
12
 The brain is divided into parts, and is bilaterally





symmetrical.
In general, the left side controls the right half of the body,
and the right side of the brain controls the left half of the
body.
The largest portion is the CEREBRUM, which makes up
80% of the brain.
The cerebrum controls logical thought and conscious
awareness of the environment.
It is also the area responsible for the highest sensory
and motor activity.
The cerebrum is made up mostly of grey matter (cell
bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons).
Name these terms that describe the brain’s surface
13
 The superficial region of the brain (and all other
organs) is called the cortex.
 The surface is not smooth, it’s convoluted. Each
bump on the surface of the cerebrum is called a G??,
and each shallow groove on the surface of the
cerebrum is called a S???.
 This formation increases the surface area, and the
surface (cortex) is where the information processing
is.
GYRUS AND SULCUS
14
 The superficial region of the brain (and all other
organs) is called the cortex.
 The surface is not smooth, it’s convoluted. Each
bump on the surface of the cerebrum is called a
GYRUS, and each shallow groove on the surface of
the cerebrum is called a SULCUS.
 This formation increases the surface area, and the
surface (cortex) is where the information processing
is.
1-??
2-??
3-??
15
Figure 13.7a
16
Figure 13.7a
17
CEREBRUM
18
 The cerebrum is divided into 2 halves called
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES, which are
separated by the l?
f? (2 words).
 The right cerebral hemisphere controls the activity
of, and receives sensory input from the left side of
the body.
 The left cerebral hemisphere controls the activity of,
and received sensory input from the right side of the
body.
 Each hemisphere is divided into lobes, named for the
bones on top of them.
CEREBRUM
19
 The cerebrum is divided into 2 halves called
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES, which are
separated by the longitudinal fissure.
 The right cerebral hemisphere controls the activity
of, and receives sensory input from the left side of
the body.
 The left cerebral hemisphere controls the activity of,
and received sensory input from the right side of the
body.
 Each hemisphere is divided into lobes, named for the
bones on top of them.
The Cerebral Hemispheres and lobes
20
1-
2-
3-
4-
Figure 13.7b, c
The Cerebral Hemispheres and lobes
21
Figure 13.7b, c
The Cerebral Hemispheres and lobes
22
Central sulcus
Lateral sulcus
 The (1)??? LOBE and
(2)???LOBE are
separated by the
CENTRAL SULCUS.
 The TEMPORAL LOBE
is between the parietal
and frontal lobe,
separated by the
LATERAL SULCUS.
 The OCCIPITAL LOBE
does not have a real
border; it’s just a region.
 These are the anatomical
areas, but the functional
areas are more important.
The Cerebral Hemispheres and lobes
23
Central sulcus
Lateral sulcus
 The FRONTAL LOBE
and PARIETAL LOBE
are separated by the
CENTRAL SULCUS.
 The TEMPORAL LOBE
is between the parietal
and frontal lobe,
separated by the
LATERAL SULCUS.
 The OCCIPITAL LOBE
does not have a real
border; it’s just a region.
 These are the anatomical
areas, but the functional
areas are more important.
Name this structure
24
 If you slice the brain down the center in a mid-
sagittal section, you will slice through a white colored
tissue called the ------which is the area that connects
the right and left halves of the brain.
CORPUS CALLOSUM
25
 If you slice the brain down the center in a mid-
sagittal section, you will slice through a white colored
tissue called the CORPUS CALLOSUM, which is
the area that connects the right and left halves of the
brain.
CORPUS CALLOSUM
26
 The CORPUS
CALLOSUM
is the area that
connects the
right and left
halves of the
brain.
Sheep brain
Corpus callosum
27
CORPUS CALLOSUM
28
 This is the area that is responsible for the right half
of the brain communicating with the left half of the
brain.
 If the corpus callosum was cut, there would be no
communication between the right and left halves of
the brain.
 Autism is a neurological disease that includes
problems with communication between the right
and left cerebral hemispheres.
 Music therapy for autism:

http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Benefits-of-Music-Therapy-for-Autism&id=432566
Name this famous case study..
29
 was a railroad construction foreman
who survived an accident in which a
large iron rod was driven completely
through his head, severing connections
in his left frontal lobe.
 It changed his personality; he became
emotional and had frequent
outbursts.
 This was the first case suggesting that
damage to specific regions of the brain
might affect personality and behavior.
Phineas Gage
30
 Phineas was a railroad construction
foreman who survived an accident in
which a large iron rod was driven
completely through his head, severing
connections in his left frontal lobe.
 It changed his personality; he became
emotional and had frequent
outbursts.
 This was the first case suggesting that
damage to specific regions of the brain
might affect personality and behavior.
Phineas Gage
31
 The left side of the brain is
responsible for critical
thinking, and the right side
is responsible for emotion.
 Since his left frontal lobe
was damaged, his emotions
went unchecked.
Diencephalon
32
Consists of two parts:
 (1)??name
 The superior portion of the diencephalon
 Processes sensory information according to
importance
 Major relay station for sensory impulses to the
cerebrum
 (2)??name
 The inferior portion of the diencephalon
 Makes hormones which maintains the
homeostasis of the body
Diencephalon
33
Consists of two parts:
 Thalamus
 The superior portion of the diencephalon
 Processes sensory information according to
importance
 Major relay station for sensory impulses to the
cerebrum
 Hypothalamus
 The inferior portion of the diencephalon
 Makes hormones which maintains the
homeostasis of the body
34
1-
234-
5-
Figure 13.15
35
Figure 13.15
Name this region
36
 functions to sort out all the sensory information.
 It compares the input and determines what
information is worth sending to the cortex.
 Your body ignores most sensory information.
 Up until now, have you noticed the sound of the
air conditioner? It’s not important, so it goes
unnoticed.
 This area also compares information from the
right and left eyes for stereoscopic vision, and the
right and left ear to determine direction of sound.
THALAMUS
37
 The THALAMUS functions to sort out all the
sensory information.
 It compares the input and determines what
information is worth sending to the cortex.
 Your body ignores most sensory information.
 Up until now, have you noticed the sound of the
air conditioner? It’s not important, so it goes
unnoticed.
 This area also compares information from the
right and left eyes for stereoscopic vision, and the
right and left ear to determine direction of sound.
Thalamus
38
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
39
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
gland
HYPOTHALAMUS
40
 This small area exerts more control over autonomic




functioning than any other part.
Makes h????? which provide homeostatic control
over the body
It maintains homeostasis by controlling the autonomic
nervous reflexes, glucose and h---- levels.
It is also the main visceral control center, so it
controls body t????, hunger and thirst, and blood
pressure.
The hypothalamus is part of the limbic system (which is
involved in memories), so that’s why a painful memory can
increase blood pressure.
HYPOTHALAMUS
41
 This small area exerts more control over autonomic




functioning than any other part.
Makes hormones which provide homeostatic
control over the body
It maintains homeostasis by controlling the autonomic
nervous reflexes, glucose and hormone levels.
It is also the main visceral control center, so it
controls body temperature, hunger and thirst, and
blood pressure.
The hypothalamus is part of the limbic system (which is
involved in memories), so that’s why a painful memory can
increase blood pressure.
42
Figure 13.15
HYPOTHALAMUS
43
 The hypothalamus synthesizes and secretes
hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the
secretion of pituitary hormones.
 By secreting hormones, the hypothalamus controls
???? Name at least 5 activities…
HYPOTHALAMUS
44
 The hypothalamus synthesizes and secretes
hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the
secretion of pituitary hormones.
 By secreting hormones, the hypothalamus controls
blood pressure, body temperature, hunger, thirst,
fatigue, sleep, autonomic nervous reflexes, and
circadian cycles.
• BRAIN STEM
– Name the 3 parts
45
• BRAIN STEM
– MIDBRAIN
– PONS
– MEDULLA OBLONGATA
46
Midbrain
47
 The top of the brain stem is the MIDBRAIN.
 It controls automatic behaviors (f? or f??)
 The midbrain also contains a pigmented area called the




substantia nigra.
The Substantia nigra is involved in addictions and in
initiating body movement.
The substantia nigra secretes the neurotransmitter
dopamine.
When the neurons in the substantia nigra become
damaged, dopamine levels decrease, causing P??? Disease.
Treatment is to replace the dopamine
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=chlckE_8VwU&list=PL8796801A57C142BB
Midbrain
48
 The top of the brain stem is the MIDBRAIN.
 It controls automatic behaviors (fight or flight)
 The midbrain also contains a pigmented area called the




substantia nigra.
The Substantia nigra is involved in addictions and in
initiating body movement.
The substantia nigra secretes the neurotransmitter
dopamine.
When the neurons in the substantia nigra become
damaged, dopamine levels decrease, causing Parkinson's
Disease.
Treatment is to replace the dopamine
Dopamine
49
 Remember that acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that
functions to contract skeletal muscles?
 There are many other types of neurotransmitters as well.
One is called dopamine.
 Dopamine is the neurotransmitter that controls the flow of
information between various areas of the brain.
 Dopamine is lacking in Parkinson's Disease, in
which the person has muscular rigidity and tremors, so
they lose the ability to start movements. They need a
service dog to help them get out of a chair or to take a first
step. They also have a pill-rolling tremor at rest.
Dopamine
50
 Dopamine plays a major role in the brain system that
is responsible for reward-driven learning. Every type
of reward that has been studied increases the level of
dopamine transmission in the brain, and a variety of
highly addictive drugs, including stimulants such as
cocaine and methamphetamine, act directly on the
dopamine system.
 There is evidence that people with extraverted
(reward-seeking) personality types tend to show
higher levels of dopamine activity than people with
introverted personalities.
Dopamine
51
 Several important diseases of the nervous system are
associated with dysfunctions of the dopamine system.
Parkinson's disease, an age-related degenerative condition
causing tremor and motor impairment, is caused by loss of
dopamine-secreting neurons in the substantia nigra.
 Schizophrenia has been shown to involve elevated levels of
dopamine activity in regions of the brain and decreased
levels of dopamine in other regions.
 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is also
believed to be associated with decreased dopamine activity.
Dopamine
52
 Because dopamine cannot cross the blood–brain
barrier, patients with diseases such as Parkinson's
disease are given L-DOPA (the precursor of
dopamine) because it crosses the blood-brain barrier
relatively easily.
 It is then converted by the body to dopamine.
VIDEOS
53
 Parkinson’s gait
 Parkinson’s patient
 Huntington’s chorea gait
 Huntington’s chorea patient
Endorphins
54
 From the Greek: word endo meaning "within" and
morphine, from Morpheus, the god of sleep.
 Endorphins are neurotransmitters made within our
body that are produced by the pituitary gland during
exercise, excitement, pain, acupuncture,
consumption of spicy food, love and orgasm, and
they resemble opiates in their abilities to produce
analgesia and a feeling of well-being.
 They cause more dopamine to be released.

How drugs cause dopamine release: Mouse Party

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addiction/drugs/mouse.html
Corpora Quadrigemina “Quadruplet bodies”
55
 They control visual and audio (hearing)




reflexes.
Throw something at your face, you blink = visual
reflex. Loud noise (BANG!) causing a startle, is the
audio reflex.
The two superior bodies are for eye blinking and fast
eye movements.
The two inferior bodies are for sound reflexes
The corpora quadrigemina are linked to the
midbrain.
Corpora
quadrigemina
56
Midbrain
Name this region
57
Farther down the
brainstem is the --which relays
sensory
information
between the
cerebellum and
cerebrum.
Pons
58
Farther down the
brainstem is the
PONS, which
relays sensory
information
between the
cerebellum and
cerebrum.
59
Spinal cord
Medulla
Oblongata
Pons
Midbrain
60
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
Oblongata
Medulla Oblongata
61
 At the base of the brainstem is the MEDULLA




OBLONGATA, ..
It also effects name 2???
Damage here causes coma. Swelling from an injury causes
pressure, which can damage this area, which can cause a
coma.
Concussions cause nausea and a decrease in blood
pressure; patients with these symptoms need an MRI to see
if this is early signs of damage to medulla oblongata
Boxers who are knocked out can recover, but repeated
knock-outs can cause permanent brain damage.
Medulla Oblongata
62
 At the base of the brainstem is the MEDULLA




OBLONGATA, which contains the cardiac, respiratory,
vomiting and vasomotor centers.
It also effects heart rate, blood pressure, and
breathing.
Damage here causes coma. Swelling from an injury causes
pressure, which can damage this area, which can cause a
coma.
Concussions cause nausea and a decrease in blood
pressure; patients with these symptoms need an MRI to see
if this is early signs of damage to medulla oblongata
Boxers who are knocked out can recover, but repeated
knock-outs can cause permanent brain damage.
What’s the difference in function between the
medulla oblongata and
the hypothalamus?
63
 The medulla oblongata controls blood pressure
directly (using nerves), and the hypothalamus
controls it indirectly (using hormones).
64
Name this structure??
65
 is a group of cells
scattered
throughout the
brainstem.
 They play a role in
rousing and
maintaining
consciousness.
Reticular Formation
66
 The reticular
formation is a
group of cells
scattered
throughout the
brainstem.
 They play a role in
rousing and
maintaining
consciousness.
Name this hormone in animals
67
 Hormone found in animals, plants, and microbes.
 In animals, circulating levels of this vary in a daily or
seasonal cycles, thereby allowing the circadian
rhythms of several biological functions.
 It allows reptiles to change the color of their skin
 The change in duration of secretion thus serves as a
biological signal for seasonal reproduction, behavior,
coat growth, and camouflage coloring in animals.
Melatonin in animals
68
 Hormone found in animals, plants, and microbes.
 In animals, circulating levels of melatonin vary in a
daily or seasonal cycles, thereby allowing the
circadian rhythms of several biological functions.
 It allows reptiles to change the color of their skin
 The change in duration of secretion thus serves as a
biological signal for seasonal reproduction, behavior,
coat growth, and camouflage coloring in animals.
Melatonin in humans
69
 Infants' melatonin levels become regular in about the third




month after birth, so they sleep through the night better.
Production of melatonin by the which????? gland is
inhibited by light and permitted by darkness.
Secretion peaks in the middle of the night, with normal
variations in timing according to an individual's
chronotype.
A chronotype is an attribute reflecting at what time of the
day their physical functions (hormone level, body
temperature, cognitive faculties, eating and sleeping) are
active, change, or reach a certain level.
Are you a morning person or a night owl?
Melatonin in humans
70
 Infants' melatonin levels become regular in about the third




month after birth, so they sleep through the night better.
Production of melatonin by the pineal gland is inhibited by
light and permitted by darkness.
Secretion peaks in the middle of the night, with normal
variations in timing according to an individual's
chronotype.
A chronotype is an attribute reflecting at what time of the
day their physical functions (hormone level, body
temperature, cognitive faculties, eating and sleeping) are
active, change, or reach a certain level.
Are you a morning person or a night owl?
Other effects of melatonin
71
 Melatonin stimulates the immune system
 There is new research being done on giving melatonin to
people with autoimmune diseases, such as ulcerative colitis.
 It is an antioxidant, protecting mitochondrial DNA
 It increases REM sleep time (dreaming)
 It causes the onset of puberty
 Melatonin is mainly secreted by the pineal body.
PINEAL BODY (Pineal gland)
72
 The PINEAL BODY secretes melatonin.
 How much it secretes depends on the sensory
information it receives from the eyes about how
many hours of daylight are present.
 The amount of melatonin secreted and circulating
in the blood then determines the circadian
rhythm, or the 24-hour biological clock (cycles
influenced by light).
 Therefore, the pineal body detects the number of
hours of light and dark, and sets the body’s 24hour clock.
Thalamus
Pineal body
73
74
Pineal body
JET LAG
75
 When you get jet lag, it’s because the information it
has been getting doesn’t match with where you are
now.
 You can help yourself get over jet lag by being
outdoors in the daylight and being indoors at
night, and the pineal body with reset the clock.
Name this brain region
76
 is the second largest portion of the brain, is
responsible for balance and muscle
coordination, and is a comparator.
CEREBELLUM
77
 The cerebellum is the second largest portion of the
brain, is responsible for balance and muscle
coordination, and is a comparator.
CEREBELLUM
78
 The cerebellum functions as a comparator.
Action potentials from the cerebral motor cortex
descend into the spinal cord to move the muscles.
 There are branches that are sent to the cerebellum to
give it information on the intended movement.
 At the same time, the cerebellum receives
information from p????????? neurons (sensory, tell
what position each body part is in).
 The cerebellum compares all this information to
allow smooth movements. That is why it is called a
comparator.
CEREBELLUM
79
 The cerebellum functions as a comparator.
Action potentials from the cerebral motor cortex
descend into the spinal cord to move the muscles.
 There are branches that are sent to the cerebellum to
give it information on the intended movement.
 At the same time, the cerebellum receives
information from proprioreception neurons
(sensory, tell what position each body part is in).
 The cerebellum compares all this information to
allow smooth movements. That is why it is called a
comparator.
80
Cerebellar Function Evaluation
81
 Finger to nose
 Heel to shin
 Ataxic gait of alcoholism
 Tandem gait (walk straight line)
FUNCTIONAL REGIONS
82
 A. SENSORY AREAS
 B. MOTOR AREAS
 C. HIGHER FUNCTIONS
CORTEX AND ASSOCIATION AREAS
83
 Each area of the brain has a region where the sensory
information comes in, and another area where the
information is understood.
 The area where the information comes in is a
cortex, and the area where it is understood is the
association area.
 Therefore, there will be a visual cortex and
association area, an auditory cortex and association
area, and a somatic (sense of touch) cortex and
association area. There is also a motor cortex and
association area.
Functional and Structural Areas of the
Cerebral Cortex
84
Figure 13.11a
Auditory Association Area
The auditory association area contains two special regions
• B????S AREA is a region of the brain that allows for speech.
– Injury (stroke) in this location causes impairment of speaking certain
words. They know what they want to say, they just cannot get the
words out. Not being able to speak at all is called aphasia.
• W????’S AREA is the region of the brain that allows understanding of
words.
• It does not affect a person’s speech.
• They can say what they want to, but
they cannot comprehend
someone else’s speech.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NUTpel04Nkc
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwujZDS-5SM
85
Auditory Association Area
• The auditory association area contains two special regions
• BROCA'S AREA is a region of the brain that allows for speech.
– Injury (stroke) in this location causes impairment of
speaking certain words. They know what they want to say,
they just cannot get the words out. Not being able to
speak at all is called aphasia.
• WERNICKE’S AREA is the region of the brain that allows
understanding of words.
• It does not affect a person’s speech.
• They can say what they want to, but
they cannot comprehend
someone else’s speech.
86
Upper and Lower Motor Neurons
87
2-??
3-??
1-??
5-??
4-??
Figure 12.11
Upper and Lower Motor Neurons
88
Lower motor neuron is here. The upper
motor neuron comes down from the brain
and synapses on this neuron.
Figure 12.11
HIGHER FUNCTIONS
89
1. PLANNING AND JUDGMENT
2. MEMORY
3. EMOTIONS
90
If you can read this you have a strong mind:
91
7H15 M3554G3 53RV35 7O PR0V3 H0W
0UR M1ND5 C4N D0 4M4Z1NG 7H1NG5!
1MPR3551V3 7H1NG5! 1N 7H3 B3G1NN1NG
17 WA5 H4RD BU7 N0W, 0N 7H15 LIN3
Y0UR M1ND 1S R34D1NG 17
4U70M471C4LLY W17H 0U7 3V3N
7H1NK1NG 4B0U7 17, B3 PROUD! 0NLY
C3R741N P30PL3 C4N R3AD 7H15.
MEMORY: Name this brain region
92
 We talked about motor memory. You can also
have memory of events.
 This is controlled by the ------ (“sea horse”; that’s
its shape). it plays a major role in storing and
retrieving memories.
 But memories are not stored there or in any other
single site in the brain. They are stored throughout
the brain, especially in the cerebral cortex.
MEMORY: HIPPOCAMPUS
93
 We talked about motor memory. You can also
have memory of events.
 This is controlled by the HIPPOCAMPUS (“sea
horse”; that’s its shape). The hippocampus plays a
major role in storing and retrieving memories.
 But memories are not stored there or in any other
single site in the brain. They are stored throughout
the brain, especially in the cerebral cortex.
Memory: Hippocampus
94
Amygdala
Hippocampus
95
Name this region
96
 functions to take new memories and store them,
making them long-term memories.
 One man, who had severe epilepsy, had his removed.
His seizures stopped, but he developed anterograde
amnesia and could no longer remember anything
new.
Amygdala
97
 The amygdala functions to take new memories and
store them, making them long-term memories.
 One man, who had severe epilepsy, had his amygdala
removed. His seizures stopped, but he developed
anterograde amnesia and could no longer remember
anything new.
Amygdala
98
 The amygdala is like a bouncer at a nightclub.
 It determines what information is important enough
to go into long term storage by allowing it to go
through the hippocampus.
 The memories that carry emotional weight are
allowed in.
 These are the memories shape our identity.
 Social pressure will cause us to change our memories
to conform, so social pressure shapes who we are.
Amygdala
99
 When you first experience a traumatic event, if you
try to minimize the strong emotions you feel, it will
not go into long term memory to continue to haunt
you.
 For example, if someone does something that
bothers you, try to forget it and do not dwell on it,
otherwise it will go into long term memory.
 If you rehearse the event over and over, you will even
start dreaming about it.
 The average person spends about 6 years dreaming.
Amygdala
100
 Making a new memory is like writing a word on
paper with an ink pen. At first, the ink is wet (the
memory is fresh) and you can smear it with your
thumb so you can’t read the word (don’t dwell on the
memory and it will not become a firm memory).
 But once the ink is dry (the memory is stored), the
memory can be retrieved.
 Every time you recall a memory, it is like creating a
brand new memory. It is like tracing over the old
word in fresh ink. It becomes bolder, stronger, easier
to read.
Amygdala
101
 When you want to remember something, go over and




over it throughout the day, every day.
If it is a painful memory, write it down and read it
out loud every day while in a relaxed environment,
followed by a logical discussion of the event.
Try to eliminate the emotional distress of the
memory during this time.
That will retrain your brain so it does not recall the
event as being so emotionally disturbing.
Therefore, it will not cause as many bad dreams.
What happens in my brain when I can't recall
something I know?
102





A Neural Network (computer software) is just a simple model of the brain - NN is
composed of interconnected neurons with synapses (software model artifacts.)
Each neuron is an adder with a threshold, and each synapse has a weight. Both the
threshold and the weight holds a small unit of information (could be digital oranalog.)
The entire NN has a certain information capacity, and used wisely (as in VOT (voice to
text) or OCR (optical character recognition)) they do quite a job!
However, NN theory (and practice) shows that when this capacity has been not used and
retrieved more than 11% of the time while learning, the network starts ' forgetting!'
What you memorize today goes into short term memory and may not be in your memory
tomorrow. To get short term memory to convert into long term memory, you need to let
your brain know that information is important by retrieving the information frequently.
In other words, you need to go over and over the same information several times a day,
every day, even after you know it. If you wait a week before you go over it again, some of
it will be lost.
Short term memory also flies out of your head under stress, such as during an exam. It is
better to study daily rather that do a marathon study session on the weekends.
Memory
103
 Memory consists of four processes
 Encoding: during exposure to new thing
 Consolidation: short-term memory forms; retained for a few
seconds to a few days. The average person can only remember
about 7 new things at a time in a few minutes. When new
information is presented, old information in short term
memory is eliminated. If temporal lobe is damaged,
consolidation may not occur and the person only remembers
things learned in the last few minutes plus things stored in
long-term memory, before the injury.
 Storage: long-term memory forms for a few minutes to
permanently, depending on how often it is retrieved and used.
 Retrieval: using the stored information
Memory
104
To convert short-term memory into long-term
memory, you should learn things in a variety of
ways:
 Prepare
 Listen
 Write notes
 Review daily
 Watch videos
 Do labs
 This allows easy access to that information again
by going through the hippocampus.
MEMORY
105
 The reason we sleep is to allow our brains to form memories.
 Anything with a strong emotional attachment will form a stronger
memory during the sleep process.
 Whatever you are afraid of during the day, you will dream about more,
and remember more.
 You will have more nightmares if you watch a disturbing TV show
before going to bed. If you have nightmares about your personal life,
stop dwelling on those things during the day! Resolve your conflicts
while you are awake, and you will sleep better.
 The best way to remember what you study is to go over it before going
to bed. Study with fear and you will remember it more!
106
Name this structure
107
 A pair of small round bodies at the anterior end of
the fornix
 Part of the diencephalon; they form part of the
limbic system.
 They relay information (recognition memory) from
the hippocampus. They also add the element of smell
to memories.
 Damage to this…due to thiamine deficiency (vit B1)
or alcohol causes Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
(anterograde amnesia)
Mammillary Bodies
108
 A pair of small round bodies at the anterior end of
the fornix
 Part of the diencephalon; they form part of the
limbic system.
 They relay information (recognition memory) from
the hippocampus. They also add the element of smell
to memories.
 Damage to the mammillary bodies due to thiamine
deficiency (vit B1) or alcohol causes WernickeKorsakoff syndrome (anterograde amnesia)
Sheep brain
Fornix
109
mammillary
body
110
Fornix
mammillary body
111
Korsakoff syndrome
112
 Sergei Korsakoff (1854–1900), a Russian neuropsychiatrist
 ‘Korsakoff syndrome’ refers to a group of symptoms—known as
amnesic syndrome—which includes inattentiveness, memory defect for
recent events, retrograde amnesia and other disorders of recall and
recognition, and disorientation in time, place, and situation.
 The Korsakoff syndrome develops most often in chronic alcoholics who
fail to take an adequate diet. This may cause an acute deficiency of
thiamine (vitamin B1). When or if the patient recovers he will probably
be left with the typical features of the Korsakoff syndrome.
 The memory defect is revealed in the difficulty the patient shows in
finding his way about, his forgetfulness in simple matters, and
especially his failure to retain information.
 Also, presented with an object he has been shown a few minutes before,
he tends to respond to it as not identical or as in some manner
changed.
Fornix
113
 Carries signals from the mammillary bodies to the
rest of the hippocampus.
114
ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
115
 Damage to the mammillary bodies or hippocampus; they
remember things before the injury occurred, but all new
information is lost within minutes.
 Nemo’s fish friend, Dori, has this type of amnesia.
 You can get around it by motor memory. Give an amnesiac
a new puzzle; they’ll do it in 30 mins. The next day, they
don’t recognize the puzzle, but they do it in 20 mins, the
next day in 10. Therefore, they are learning by motor
memory. They can learn their route from home to the
market by repetition. But they can’t make a detour, and if
anything bumps them off track, they’ll be lost.
116
RETROGRADE AMNESIA
117
 Retrograde amnesia is a form of amnesia where




someone is unable to recall events that occurred before the
development of the amnesia.
Retrograde amnesia is caused by trauma that results in
brain injury.
Retrograde amnesia is often temporally graded, meaning
that remote memories are more easily accessible than
events occurring just prior to the trauma.
Events nearest in time to the event that caused memory loss
may never be recovered.
They can remember new things.
118
Name this condition
119
 A hemorrhage in the brain (broken blood
vessel) or a clot deprives an area of the brain
of oxygen.
 This is called a ???
 It is one of the most likely causes of amnesia.
 Amnesia that is caused by a blow to the head is not
cured by a second blow!
STROKES
120
 A hemorrhage in the brain (broken blood
vessel) or a clot deprives an area of the brain
of oxygen.
 This is called a stroke.
 It is one of the most likely causes of amnesia.
 Amnesia that is caused by a blow to the head is not
cured by a second blow!
Another problem with memory:
Name this DISEASE
121
 Dementia is a symptom, not a disease. Dementia is
loss of memory.
 is the most common form of dementia.
 About 10% of people over the age of 65 and 50% of
people over the age 85 suffer from it.
 It is irreversible, incurable, and fatal (6th leading
cause of death in the USA, surpassing diabetes). The
person dies because they can no longer eat, swallow,
etc. There are treatments to delay symptoms.
Another problem with memory:
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
122
 Dementia is a symptom, not a disease. Dementia is
loss of memory.
 Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of
dementia.
 About 10% of people over the age of 65 and 50% of
people over the age 85 suffer from it.
 It is irreversible, incurable, and fatal (6th leading
cause of death in the USA, surpassing diabetes). The
person dies because they can no longer eat, swallow,
etc. There are treatments to delay symptoms.
Normal Brain vs. Alzheimer’s
123
Alzheimer’s Disease vs. other dementia
124
 Alzheimer's disease is typically a slowly progressive
disorder that involves loss of memory for recent
information (short-term memory) and one or more
other abilities, such as speech and language,
personality, decision-making and judgment or
awareness and ability to interact with the
environment.
 Abilities that are typically not impaired in a patient
with Alzheimer's disease include memory for
information of long ago (long-term memory), vision,
ability to feel things and muscle strength.
Memory
125
 Even when these memory systems are working
well, some memories will be stored or recalled
more easily than others.
 A memory with a strong emotional component,
such as where you were on September 11, 2001,
will likely be retained for the rest of your life.
 Information is also more likely to be stored
properly when it is recognized as important.
Memory
126
 New information is also more likely to be retained and




recalled if it is related to information that is already stored.
The links between the new and old information serve as
retrieval clues.
The more numerous the links and the stronger the
associations, the more accessible and clear the memory will
be.
However, if the new information is too similar or two
different from an existing memory, it may be discarded.
Forging new memories depends in large part on staying
interested, active, and alert.
127
Learning new things
128
 You can’t learn anything brand new; you have to
either use repetition or do something to put the new
information in your head by associating it with
something you are already familiar with.
 That’s why mnemonics are good. The word
“supinate” was a brand new word, but it sounds like
“soup”, and its motion looks like you’re holding a
bowl of soup, so it’s easy now to remember.
Learning new things
129
 If the word “cerebrum” is a brand new word, it
sounds like “Sir read broom”, which are words you
already know and can visualize. Think of Harry
Potter asking a wizard to read the strange words on
his new broom: “Sir read broom”, and the wizard
scratches his brain (cerebrum) as he tries to read
the words. Now it’s easy to remember because you
can relate it to something you already know and
can picture.
130
IMPLANTED MEMORY
131
 All memories are created; there is no such thing as
real memory.
 When the Challenger shuttle exploded in the
1980’s, a freshman college professor told his
students to write down where they were and what
they were doing when they heard about it.
 Four years later, he asked them again. 65%
answered the same way, but 35% remembered it
completely differently, but the students insisted
they were right.
IMPLANTED MEMORY
132
 Another college professor found all the freshmen students with older




siblings at the college, and he told the older siblings to tell this story
to their younger siblings:
“When you were 5, we went to a fancy restaurant to celebrate mom’s
birthday, and you spilled something on her dress and you were really
embarrassed.”
A few weeks later, the professor asked the freshmen to write down a
story about anything embarrassing that happened to them when they
were five, and to include all the details they remembered.
The freshmen recounted the fake story as though it was real because
they thought they remembered it.
They also included details that they were not told, such as the name
of the restaurant, the color of the dress, and what was spilled. The
freshmen filled in the story to make a complete memory.
MEMORY LAPSES
133
 More likely to occur when a person is tired, sick,
distracted, or under stress.
 People who are depressed are also more likely to
have memory problems.
 The brain contains about 100 billion neurons.
Only a few neurons die over a person's lifetime, but
they do shrink. This shrinkage may partially
explain why mental functioning slows down in
middle and older age.
Attention Deficit Disorder
134
Memory aids
135
Place all commonly lost items in a designated spot.
Write things down
Concentrate and relax
Get plenty of sleep
Say words out loud: saying” I have turned off the stove” after you
have done so will give you a verbal reminder when you later charged
recall whether the stove is still on. Incorporating people’s names into
the conversation immediately after you have met them serves the
same purpose.
 Use memory aids: use a pocket notepad, personal digital assistant,
wristwatch alarm, or voice recorder to help you remember what you
need to do more to keep track of information.





Memory aids
136
 Use visual images: when learning new information, such as a
persons name, create a visual image in your mind to make the
information more vivid and more memorable. If you have just been
introduced to Mr. Hackman, visualize him hacking his way through a
dense jungle with a machete.
 Group items using mnemonics: when memorizing lists, names,
addresses, and so on, alphabetize them or group them into an
acronym -- a word made from the first letter of a series of words.
You could also use the first letter of each word to create new words to
form sentences or phrase. You can use rhymes or create a story that
connects each element to be remembered. The more compact or
meaningful the mnemonic, the easier it will be to remember the
information.
EMOTIONS: LIMBIC SYSTEM
137
 The prefrontal lobe and the hippocampus are part of a




system of structures in the brain.
The LIMBIC SYSTEM also includes the olfactory nerves
(sense of smell). Therefore, memory, emotion, and smell
are linked.
Crayolas are created today with the same old waxy scent
because it reminds people of their happy times in
childhood.
Why is the brain formed so that smell and emotions are tied
together?
Because pheromones are tied to emotions and behavior, so
they need the link.
The Limbic System
(everything in orange)
138
Figure 13.23
Limbic System
139
 The limbic system includes the olfactory cortex
(sense of smell), and portions of the diencephalon
and cerebrum
 It influences emotions, motivations, and mood
 It is functionally associated with the hypothalamus
 It initiates responses necessary for survival, such as
hunger and thirst.
Name these
• These are tissues that cover the entire CNS.
They are three layers that serve to protect and
cushion the brain.
140
MENINGES
• These are tissues that cover the entire CNS.
They are three layers that serve to protect and
cushion the brain.
141
Meninges
142
1. ?????????? is the thickest and most superficial of
the meninges.
2. ???????????MATER is the middle layer and is not
nearly as dense. It also does not go down into the sulci, it
only covers over the top of the gyri.
3. ????mATER is the thin, shiny layer that DOES follow the
brain surface into the sulci.
 SUBDURAL SPACE is between the dura mater and the
arachnoid mater.
 The SUBARACHNOID SPACE is between the arachnoid
and pia mater, and is filled with CEREBRAL SPINAL
FLUID (CSF).
Meninges
143
1. DURA MATER is the thickest and most superficial
of the meninges.
2. ARACHNOID MATER is the middle layer and is not
nearly as dense. It also does not go down into the sulci, it
only covers over the top of the gyri.
3. PIA MATER is the thin, shiny layer that DOES follow the
brain surface into the sulci.
 SUBDURAL SPACE is between the dura mater and the
arachnoid mater.
 The SUBARACHNOID SPACE is between the arachnoid
and pia mater, and is filled with CEREBRAL SPINAL
FLUID (CSF).
1. DURA MATER (“Tough mother”)
144
Dense regular connective tissue.
It consists of two layers.
Under the skull is the first layer of dura mater, called the
PERIOSTEAL LAYER. Just under this is the second
layer, called the MENINGEAL LAYER. There are these
two layers everywhere except around the spinal cord, where
it’s just one layer, the meningeal layer of the dura mater; no
periosteal layer.
Between the meningeal and periosteal layers of the dura
mater are DURAL SINUSES, which are filled with venous
blood which is drained from the brain.
Dural sinus and subarachnoid space
145
Clinical Significance
146
 In the spinal cord, between L3 and L4, a doctor can
inject anesthetic above the dura mater, so only the
nerves are affected. What is that called? Epidural.
 The dura and arachnoid mater both have lots of
blood vessels, which might rupture in an injury,
called a SUBDURAL or SUBARACHNOID
HEMORRHAGE, which is potentially fatal.
Blood accumulates and squeezes the brain.
 Treatment = drill a hole.
VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN
147
 The brain and spinal cord are hollow, filled with CSF = ventricles
They are extensive. The names are simple.
(1)????VENTRICLE is the largest, extends throughout the cerebrum.
(2)?? VENTRICLE: in a sheep, it forms a figure “3” under the fornix
and around the corpora quadrigemina. In a human model, it looks like
a cavity between the fornix and a red arch.
(3)??VENTRICLE is at the base of the cerebellum; it is continuous
with the central canal of the spinal cord, and also with the
subarachnoid space.
 CEREBRAL ???????: connects the 3rd and 4th ventricles. The
used CSF drains out of the brain at THIS---and returns to the
blood circulation.
The subdural space is NOT filled with CSF; it is filled with
venous blood.
VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN
148
 The brain and spinal cord are hollow, filled with CSF = ventricles
They are extensive. The names are simple.
 LATERAL VENTRICLE is the largest, extends throughout the
cerebrum.
 THIRD VENTRICLE: in a sheep, it forms a figure “3” under the
fornix and around the corpora quadrigemina. In a human model, it
looks like a cavity between the fornix and a red arch.
 FOURTH VENTRICLE is at the base of the cerebellum; it is
continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord, and also with
the subarachnoid space.
 CEREBRAL AQUEDUCT: connects the 3rd and 4th ventricles.
The used CSF drains out of the brain at the aqueduct and returns
to the blood circulation.
The ventricles, subarachnoid space , and cerebral aqueduct
are filled with CSF. The subdural space is NOT filled with
CSF; it is filled with venous blood.
VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN (blue)
149b
Figure 13.6a,
150
Fornix
3rd ventricle
mammillary body
151
Cerebral aqueduct
Fourth ventricle
Lateral ventricle
Sheep brain
Third ventricle
(forms a
number “3”)
Lateral ventricle
152
Fourth ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
CerebroSpinal Fluid (CSF)
153
 CSF is similar to plasma because it is derived from
plasma.
 CSF is made in the ventricles by a group of
capillaries called the C??? P???.
 The capillaries have holes that allow the blood
plasma to leak into the subarachnoid space. It is
now called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
CerebroSpinal Fluid (CSF)
154
 CSF is similar to plasma because it is derived from
plasma.
 CSF is made in the ventricles by a group of
capillaries called the CHOROID PLEXUS.
 The choroid plexus capillaries have holes that allow
the blood plasma to leak into the subarachnoid
space. It is now called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
CerebroSpinal Fluid (CSF)
155
 The CSF that has been depleted of its nutrients is
absorbed back into the blood through the
ARACHOID GRANULATIONS.
 Arachnoid granulations are small protrusions of the
arachnoid mater (the thin second layer covering the brain)
through the dura mater (the thick outer layer).
 They protrude into the venous sinuses of the brain, and
allow cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to exit the brain, and enter
the blood stream.
 800ml of CSF is made per day, but there is actually only 150
ml there because the extra is continually absorbed in the
dural sinus through the arachnoid villa, which are valves
that release the CSF back into the blood.
Dural sinus and subarachnoid
space
156
FUNCTION OF FLUID-FILLED VENTRICLES
157
 1. Allows the brain to ???
 2. It ????. In sudden movement, like riding a bike
into a tree, and hitting the head on the tree, the
brain hits inside the skull in the front, and then in
recoil it hits the back of the skull = closed head
injury, not necessarily with a fracture.
 3. Acts as the lymphatic system of the brain (it
doesn’t have one).
FUNCTION OF FLUID-FILLED VENTRICLES
158
 1. Allows the brain to float. The brain has the
consistency of Jell-O, and weighs three pounds. Its
weight would crush the inferior structures if it
didn’t float.
 2. It cushions. In sudden movement, like riding a
bike into a tree, and hitting the head on the tree,
the brain hits inside the skull in the front, and then
in recoil it hits the back of the skull = closed head
injury, not necessarily with a fracture.
 3. Acts as the lymphatic system of the brain (it
doesn’t have one).
Protection of the Brain – Cerebrospinal
Fluid (CSF)
159
Figure 13.27b
PROBLEMS WITH MENINGES
160
 Name this condition --is accumulation of CSF inside the




ventricles.
It is usually congenital, caused by a blockage of the cerebral
aqueduct. The CSF is made but can’t leave, and the brain
gets expanded.
The skull bones in a newborn can expand, so
although it CAN damage the brain, it does NOT
always cause mental retardation if it is treated
early enough. The head becomes enlarged.
Treatment is to put in a tube to drain it.
in adults can be caused by a tumor, and since the skull no
longer expands, it’s very dangerous.
PROBLEMS WITH MENINGES
161
 HYDROCEPHALY is accumulation of CSF inside the




ventricles.
It is usually congenital, caused by a blockage of the cerebral
aqueduct. The CSF is made but can’t leave, and the brain
gets expanded.
The skull bones in a newborn can expand, so
although it CAN damage the brain, it does NOT
always cause mental retardation if it is treated
early enough. The head becomes enlarged.
Treatment is to put in a tube to drain it.
Hydrocephaly in adults can be caused by a tumor, and since
the skull no longer expands, it’s very dangerous.
HYDROCEPHALY
162
HYDROCEPHALY
163
Name this condition
164
 is inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain
 Can be caused from bacteria (can be fatal in 24 hours) or virus (fatal




in a week or more) or fungi (fatal in a week or so). It kills 3 people in
10.
The main symptom is a headache, so when this occurs in an infant,
they can’t say where they hurt.
So when an infant presents with a high fever of 104˚ with no other
symptoms, they might test for meningitis, because if they miss it, it’s
fatal.
The test is a SPINAL TAP, where a needle is inserted between L4
and L5 because that is below the level of the spinal cord.
They draw the CSF to look at. It it’s cloudy or bloody, it’s usually this
MENINGITIS
165
 Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges.
 Can be caused from bacteria (can be fatal in 24 hours) or virus (fatal




in a week or more) or fungi (fatal in a week or so). It kills 3 people in
10.
The main symptom is a headache, so when this occurs in an infant,
they can’t say where they hurt.
So when an infant presents with a high fever of 104˚ with no other
symptoms, they might test for meningitis, because if they miss it, it’s
fatal.
The test is a SPINAL TAP, where a needle is inserted between L4
and L5 because that is below the level of the spinal cord.
They draw the CSF to look at. It it’s cloudy or bloody, it’s usually
meningitis. Untreated meningitis can lead to this next one:
ENCEPHALITIS
166
 This is inflammation of the brain.
 It can be caused by mosquito-borne illnesses, or
bacteria.
 Why is infection of the brain so dangerous? The
swelling crushes the brain.
 Any injury may lead to brain swelling.
 Treatment is to remove a piece of the skull bone to
allow the swelling.
Brain Cancer
167
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
168
Brain Wave
Activity is
recorded on
an EEG
Not to be
confused with
an EKG,
which is for
the heart.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
169
Brain Waves
170
 Types of brain waves
 ?? (active during wakeful relaxation of closed eyes,
such as meditation, prayer). When you pray or
meditate for a long time, you feel refreshed!
 ????(active when learning, thinking and
concentrating)
 ??? (active when just falling asleep)
 ??? (active during deepest stage of sleep)
Brain Waves
171
 Types of brain waves
 Alpha (active during wakeful relaxation of closed
eyes, such as meditation, prayer). When you pray or
meditate for a long time, you feel refreshed!
 Beta (active when learning, thinking and
concentrating)
 Theta (active when just falling asleep)
 Delta (active during deepest stage of sleep)
172
 Paralyzed woman moves robotic arm using
thought alone
 Robotic Arm Woman (3 mins)
 Robotic Arm Man (7mins)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QRt8QCx3BCo
Look at this picture.
173
Stare at this picture
and you will see the
man turn his face.
Your brain cannot
imagine half a face so
it will correct the
image so his face will
appear sideways!
174