Transcript Module 31 and 32

Information Processing
Module 31 and 32

TAKE OUT A PIECE OF PAPER

NAME THE SEVEN DWARVES

Was the exercise difficult or easy?

It depends on what factors?
Whether you like Disney movies.
 How long ago you watched it?
 How loud the people are around you when
you are trying to remember?

Memory
Memory is the basis for knowing your friends,
your neighbors, the English language, the
national anthem, and yourself.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be
a stranger to you; every language foreign;
every task new; and even you yourself would
be a stranger.
The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has
persisted over time. It is our ability to acquire,
store, and retrieve information.
Studying Memory:
Information Processing Models
Keyboard
Disk
Monitor
(Encoding)
(Storage)
(Retrieval)
Sequential Process

Our dual-track brain processes many
things simultaneously (consciously and
unconsciously)
◦ Connectionism: views memories as part of
interconnected neural networks
◦ Memory formation is more complex than the
limited, sequential “computer model” analogy
Parallel Processing
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley
Jumpy Hopeful Goofy
Sleazy Shy
Droopy Moody
Hoppy
Dopey
Sniffy Wishful Puffy Ren
Dumpy
Sneezy Pop Grumpy
Cheesy
Bashful
Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Itchy
Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy Diddy
Stimpy
Turn your paper over: Now pick out
the 7 Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc
and Bashful
With recall- you must retrieve the
information from your memory (fill-in-the
blank tests).
With recognition- you must identify the
target from possible targets (multiplechoice tests).
Which is easier?
Which Dwarf quiz was easier?
RECALL VS. RECOGNITION
Can you draw
a penny?
Can you recognize
a penny?
Information Processing
Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/
Corbis
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model
of memory includes a) sensory memory, b)
short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.
Modifications to the Three-Stage
Model
1.
Some information skips the first two stages
and enters long-term memory automatically.
2.
Since we cannot focus on all the sensory
information received, we select information
that is important to us and actively process it
into our working memory.
Working Memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory
that involves conscious, active processing of
incoming auditory and visual-spatial
information, and of information retrieved from
long-term memory
Working Memory
The Information-Processing model of memory:
First, we encode
Then we store
Then we retrieve
Do you recall the limbic system structure most
involved with the formation of new memories?
A Demo!
Our “experiment” shows the
difference between
Shallow vs. Deep
Processing
Tips for better encoding
and
deeper processing?
Less maintenance rehearsal:
Simple repetition in order
to keep info in STM
More elaborative rehearsal:
Adding meaning and/or context
to info in order to encode it for LTM
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your school) is
automatically processed.
2. However, new or unusual information
(friend’s new cell-phone number) requires
attention and effort.
Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information
effortlessly, such as the following:
1. Space: While reading a textbook, you
automatically encode the place of a picture
on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events
that take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of
things that happen to you.
Effortful Processing
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Committing novel
information to memory
requires effort just like
learning a concept from
a textbook. Such
processing leads to
durable and accessible
memories.
Rehearsal
Effortful learning
usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables:
TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
Rehearsal
The more times the
nonsense syllables were
practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions were
required to remember
them on Day 2.
Memory Effects
1.
Spacing Effect: We retain information better
when we rehearse over time.
2.
Serial Position Effect: When your recall is
better for first and last items on a list, but
poor for middle items.
What We Encode
1.
2.
3.
Encoding by meaning
Encoding by images
Encoding by organization
Encoding Meaning
Processing the meaning of verbal
information by associating it with what
we already know or imagine. Encoding
meaning (semantic encoding) results in
better recognition later than visual or
acoustic encoding.
Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to
effortful processing, especially when combined
with semantic encoding.
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.
Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and
organizational devices in aiding memory.
Organizing Information for Encoding
Break down complex information into broad
concepts and further subdivide them into
categories and subcategories.
1. Chunking
2. Hierarchies
Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable
unit. Try to remember the numbers below.
1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history,
chunk the numbers together and see if you
can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking
information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories
and subcategories.
Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy
Effortful processing used to encode
explicit memories
 Automatic processing used to encode
implicit memories

◦ Procedural
◦ Classically conditioned associations
Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three
stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
Sensory Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
Whole Report
Sperling (1960)
R G T
F M Q
L Z S
“Recall”
RTMZ
(44% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
The exposure time for the stimulus is so small
that items cannot be rehearsed.
Partial Report
S X T
J R S
P K Y
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”
JRS
(100% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity
was larger than what was originally thought.
Time Delay
A D I
N L V
O G H
50 ms (1/20 second)
Low Tone
Time
Delay
“Recall”
Medium Tone
N__
(33% recall)
High Tone
Sensory Memory
Percent Recognized
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
80
60
40
20
0.15
0.30
0.50
Time (Seconds)
1.00
Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the
different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long
Working Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term
memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short
duration (20 seconds).
Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up
to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.
Capacity
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or
Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information
(1956).
Ready?
MUTGIKTLRSYP
You should be able to
recall 7±2 letters.
George Miller
Chunking
The capacity of the working memory may be
increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks
Duration
Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the
duration of working memory by manipulating
rehearsal.
CHJ
MKT
HIJ
547
547
544
541
…
CH??
The duration of the working memory is about
20 sec.
Working Memory Duration
Long-Term Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
Long-Term Memory
Essentially unlimited capacity store.
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.
Memory Feats
Mahadevan in ‘81: 31,811 digits of pi in 3
hrs., 49 mins
 Tomoyori in ’91: 40,000 digits in 17 hrs.,
21 mins
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Remarkable Memories
Memory Stores
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
LTM
Encoding
Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.25 sec.
20 sec.
Years
Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic
system that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield & Nicolson archives
Brain’s equivalent of a “save” button
 Not permanently stored here
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◦ Registers and temporarily holds the elements
of a remembered episode

Deep sleep is SUPER important to
memory
◦ Brain replays day’s experiences and transfers
them to the cortex for long-term storage
Hippocampus

https://www.learner.org/resources/series1
50.html#
Clive Wearing
Cerebellum
Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.
Cerebellum plays a key role in forming
and storing classical conditioning
memories
 Basal Ganglia form procedural memories
for skills

Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
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Excitement triggers stress hormones
which make more glucose available for
brain functions
◦ Also signal the amygdala to begin memory
trace and boost the basal ganglia

Sears emotional events in the brain AND
disrupts ability to process normal
memories
The Amygdala, Emotions, Memory

Clarity of surprising, significant events
◦ Vividly and confidently recalled
◦ As we relive and discuss them, misinformation
seeps in
Flashbulb Memories
Synaptic Changes
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller
Long-Term Potentiation
(LTP) refers to synaptic
enhancement after
learning (Lynch, 2002).
An increase in
neurotransmitter release
or receptors on the
receiving neuron
indicates strengthening
of synapses.
SUMMARY: Storing Implicit & Explicit
Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory
involves learning an action while the individual does not
know or declare what she knows.
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of
the memory store.
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Measures of Memory
In recognition, the person must identify an item
amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test
requires recognition.)
1. Name the capital of France.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Brussels
Rome
London
Paris
Measures of Memory
In recall, the person must retrieve information
using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires
recall.)
1. The capital of France is ______.
Measures of Memory
In relearning, the individual shows how much
time (or effort) is saved when learning material
for the second time.
List
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
1 day later
Saving
It took 5 trials
to learn the list
Relearning
Trials
X 100
Relearning
Trials
Original
Trials
10
5
10
50%
X 100
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like anchors
that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
fire
smoke
Fire Truck
heat
truck
red
hose
Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the
strands or associations that leads to it. This
process is called priming.
Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they
learned the list underwater, while they recall more
words on land if they learned that list on land
(Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers
Déjà Vu
Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.”
Cues from the current situation may
unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience.
© The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved
Context Effects
After learning to move a mobile by kicking,
infants most strongly respond when retested in
the same context rather than in a different
context (Rovee-Collier, 1993).
Courtesy of Carolyn Rovee-Collier,
Rutgers University
Moods and Memories
We usually recall experiences that are consistent
with our current mood (state-dependent
memory). Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval
cues. Our memories are mood-congruent.
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oHeE
Q85m79I&t=309s
Endless Memory