Transcript Memory – Information Processing

Memory:
Information Processing
Information Processing Model
1.
Encoding - getting information into
the memory system
2.
Storage - retaining the information
over time
3.
Retrieval - getting information out
of memory storage
Encoding
Two Types of Encoding

Automatic Processing

Effortful Processing
Automatic Processing
 unconscious
 Place
encoding info; without effort
information (example: remembering
where a piece of info is in your textbook,
but not remembering what the info is)
Effortful Processing
 requires
attention & a conscious,
deliberate effort
 example:
studying for a test
Processing Trends & Strategies
How can you use effortful processing
to encode school-related information?
Rehearsal

repeating information to encode it

one of the most important processing
strategies
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

did memory studies w/ threeletter nonsense syllables
(gnh, auk, loi)

conclusion: the more you
rehearse, the more you retain

developed the forgetting curve
(a.k.a. “retention curve” or
“Ebbinghaus curve”)
Rehearsal and Retention
(From Baddeley, 1982)
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Poodle
Tree
Dance
House
Airport
Sugar
Child
Ground
Watch
Squirrel
Truck
Building
Hospital
Pencil
Terrace
Lamp
Serial Position Effect
effect – ability to recall info
near the beginning of a list
 primacy
effect – the ability to recall
info near the end of a list
 recency
Primacy/Recency Effect
(From Craik & Watkins, 1973)
Spacing Effect

distributed practice - spread rehearsal
out in several sessions separated by a
period of time

massed practice - putting all rehearsal
together in one long session (cramming)

distributed practice helps you retain info
better than massed practice
Mnemonic Device
 memory
trick or technique for
remembering specific facts
 Example:
 Peg-word
System
Peg-Word System
 the
person associates items to
remember with a list of peg words
already memorized
 goal:
visualize the items to
remember with the items on the
pegs
Peg Word System
Storage
Three Storage Systems
 three
distinct storage systems :
 sensory memory
 working
memory
 long-term
memory
Sensory Memory

brief, initial coding of sensory info in the
memory system
iconic store – visual info (less than ½
second)
 echoic store – sound info (3 – 4
seconds)


info held just long enough to make a
decision on its importance
Working Memory

holds info briefly before it is stored or
forgotten (conscious, activated)

holds about seven (+ or – 2) chunks of info
at one time (example: phone numbers)

can retain info as long as it is rehearsed
Long-Term Memory
 relatively
permanent & limitless
storehouse of the memory system
 holds
memories w/out conscious effort
Memory and the Brain:
How do we get information into long-term memory?
How are memories constructed?
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memory research says we build
memories from bits & pieces of info.
when pieces are missing, we invent
new ones to fill the spaces
How are memories stored?

each memory activates a
specific pattern of firing in
brain cells (neurons)

long-term potentiation: as
the neurons for a particular
memory fire over & over,
the synapses become more
efficient (release
neurotransmitter serotonin)
The Brain Documentary: Memory
Retrieval
Retrieval

two forms of retrieval
 recall - retrieve information learned earlier
 examples: essay, fill-in-the-blank, short
answer test questions

recognition - identify items learned earlier
 examples: multiple choice & matching
test questions
How do we get to memories we need to
retrieve?
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memories are primed (triggered) by
retrieval cues
the more you know about a subject,
the easier it is to learn more about it
End Class Notes – Fall 2015
Overlearning

continuing to rehearse after the info has
been learned

rehearsing past the point of mastery

helps ensure info will be available even
under stress

examples: playing musical pieces, sports
Semantic Encoding
 making
the material meaningful
 encoding
info that is meaningful
enhances recall
How do you make material meaningful?
Self-Reference Effect
 make
info meaningful by making it
relevant to your life
Encoding Research
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Mnemonic: Method of Loci
 person
associates items to be
remembered with familiar places
Storage:
Explicit & Implicit Memories
Explicit Memory
 memory

of facts & experiences
examples:
 At
what temperature does water freeze?
 What is your mother’s middle name?
 What did you eat for dinner last night?
 must
consciously retrieve and declare
 processed
through the hippocampus
Implicit Memory

memory of skills & procedures

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examples:
 how to walk
 how to read
 how to button your shirt
retrieved without conscious recollection
processed through the cerebellum
Memory and the Hippocampus
 damage
to the hippocampus results in the
inability to form new explicit memories
 the
ability to remember the skills of
implicit memories remains
Memory and the Hippocampus
Think about this…
 What
would happen if a man who
experienced damage to his
hippocampus went to play golf on
the same course every day?
Answer:
He would have no explicit memory of the course – it
would seem like a brand new place every time.
But his scores would gradually improve over time,
because his implicit memories would allow him to get
better with practice.
Context Effect
 enhanced
ability to retrieve info
when you are in an environment
similar to the one in which you
encoded the info
State Dependent Memory
 retrieval
is best when the person is in
the same physical & emotional state as
when they encoded the info.
 physical
examples: tired, under the
influence of caffeine
 mood
examples: happy, depressed