Transcript Cognitive information processing

Cognitive information
processing
A result of several influences
• Especially:
– Learning theory
• S-R; S-O-R
– Computer science/Information processing
• Turing
• Intelligent machines
– Information theory
• Shannon/Bell Labs
Proposes:
• A series of processes are performed on
environmental information that then affect the
behavior of the organism (person)
• Input processes, storage processes, output
processes
– Mainly in the brain, but not all
– The processes are in a relatively invariant order
– All people follow the same set of processes of
thinking
– However, the outcomes can be quite different
Four major types of info processing
theories
•
•
•
•
Stage theory
Depth of processing theory
Parallel distributed processing theory
Connectionist models
Stage theory
• Argues for three major types of memory
– Sensory memory
– Short-term memory
– Long-term memory
Levels-of-processing
• All information is stored, problem is in
retrieval
• Retrieval is based on the amount of
elaboration used in processing of
information
• Perception, attention, labeling, meaning
Parallel distributed processing
theory
• Simultaneous processing by several
different parts of memory system rather
than sequentially
Connectionistic theory
• Information is stored in multiple locations
throughout the brain in the form of
networks of connections
• More connections to a single idea or
concept, the more likely it is to be stored
and retrieved
General principles
• Limited capacity available for active
processing at any given time
– Bottlenecks
• Control mechanism—part of the system’s
processing capacity must be assigned to a
control mechanism
– Allocates processing capacity
– Prioritizes activities
– Coordinates actions
Sensory activation
– Environmental cues generate changes within
specialized organs
•
•
•
•
Eyes
Ears
Skin
Tongue
– Only a portion of environmental phenomena
generate sensual changes
• Perceptual thresholds
• Infrared light
• X-rays
Transduction of sensual
reaction
• Sensory organs create patterns of
electrical impulses as a response to
environmental stimuli
– (Transduction)
• Qualitatively different patterns are
produced for visual, sound, touch (haptic),
and language (semantic) memory systems
Buffering and filtering
• Sensual buffers are thought to exist that
retain the electrical impulses for a short
period of time
• The ‘most important’ content is passed
along while the ‘less important’ content is
filtered out
• Cannot handle the vast amount of information that
senses generate
• Filtering is based on ‘pattern recognition’
Stimuli that pass through filters
• Inhibitor modulation
– Those patterns, etc. that are neither seen as
especially important nor so unimportant that
they can be ignored are “dampened”
– Allows for monitoring of content without use of
extensive processing capacity
Working memory
• The active portion of memory (including
consciousness) where processes that
reject, evaluate, interpret
– Limited capacity
– Allocation of processing capacity is known as
“attention”
• Intentional v. automatic
• “content attributes” v. need recognition
Working memory
• Must draw upon ‘long-term memory’ to
assign meaning to the new patterns of
electrical impulses
– What does “economic impact” (a pattern of
impulses representing a set of characters on
a page) mean?
– Meaning is actually the set of relationships
identified/constructed between existing
concepts and the new ones
Determinants of attention
• Most content is disposed of quickly—
recognized as routine and then ignored
– Does not get integrated into long-term
memory (some controversy here)
– “Habituation” of repetitive tasks, experiences
leads to ‘monitoring’
– Attention allocated to divergence from the
norm, expectations
Determinants of attention
• Hard-wired to attend to cues that had
survival value (those that didn’t left the
gene pool)
– Movement
– Loud noises
– Bright colors/contrasts
– Unexpected or unusual features
Film examples
• Apocalypse Now
• The Bourne Identity
• Master and Commander
Determinants of attention
• Internally-generated needs draw attention
to ‘content’ that relates to those needs
– Hunger
– Pain
– Fear
– Sexual desire
Determinants of attention
• Learned interests and evaluations of
importance direct attention to certain
‘content’
– Those with an interest in foreign affairs will
allocated attention to news stories about Iraq,
etc.
Capacity
• For a long time, considered “7+/-2 chunks”
of information
• More recent research has argued that we
have greater capacity
– Ability to monitor many environmental cues at
one time
Processing
• Info is processed at different levels
• From simple recognition thru “elaboration”
– Automatic, lizard-brain response to
• The more we already know in a given
domain, the less effort to process new
information
– The less ‘change’ likely as a result of
processing
• Experts less likely to change their minds due to
inclusion of new info
• However, experts more likely to deeply process
info in their area of interest
Long-term memory
• A portion of ‘information’ from working
memory is prepared for transfer to longterm (permanent) storage
– To do so, it is integrated into structures of
meaning (schema) held within long-term
memory
– The integration gives ‘meaning’ to the new
information while reconfiguring the schema
that are activated to interpret the new info
• Reconfiguration of schema is usually minor
Interpretation
• Interpretation is the process of comparing
new info to that held in LTM
• Usually the outcome is largely in line with
existing beliefs
– “Biased” interpretation
– Many scholars see this as ego-defensive
• May simply be efficient with regard to the massive
flow of information and limited cognitive capacity
Retrieval from LTM
• Information retrieved from LTM is limited
– Would quickly reach overload if we tried to
access all potentially relevant info
– Would take far too long—can’t spend long
periods of time on anything but the most
crucial new info/decision-making
• Retrieval based on perceived shared or
similar meaning/concepts
– Memories in LTM organized hierarchically?
Schematically? Etc.
Influences on retrieval
• Frequency and Recency of Activation
– Memory traces are strengthened through use,
become less strong over time
• Vividness
– Emotionality
• Relationships with other related concepts
– One concept is likely to be accessed when
another, closely related concept, is accessed
Influences on retrieval
• Concepts are retrieved according to the
set of relationships they have with other
concepts
– Spreading activation
• The structure of relationships varies by
individual
– Culture influences structure of relations/
topics/concepts held
Learning
• Content features
– Repetition
– Attachment with existing beliefs/knowledge
– Vividness
– Emotionality
– Alignment with existing beliefs
• Multiple exposure
• Existing knowledge (targeting)
– Interest
Learning/memory
• Evidence indicates quite limited ability to
recall or even recognize media content
experienced recently
• Memory for ‘distant’ content exhibits clear
biases
– Even relatively powerful memories can be
‘false’
Persuasion
• Reconfiguration of evaluative schema
• Persuasive messages tend to exhibit
certain features:
– Credible sources
– Vivid examples rather than statistical trends
– Emotionality
– Visual logic
– Propaganda methods (demonization,
attachment to revered symbols, etc.)
Decision-making
• Internal and external sources of
information
• Low-effort decision-making the rule
– Even for ‘important’ decisions (cars and
make-up)
– Satisficing the most common behavior
• Costs of info search v. expected return
• Much more likely to depend on existing knowledge,
info than to engage in active information seeking
“Mindless” behavior
• Much of our behavior is relatively
automatic—don’t see the effort necessary
to change ingrained behaviors as worth
the costs
• Much of media use is relatively ‘mindless’
Behavior
• Behavior is mostly controlled by the
outcome of info processing in working
memory
– Actions taken to meet needs/drives/
motivations
– Responses to environmental demands
– Goal-directed behavior
Behavior effectiveness and
adjustment
• The environmental change observed after
behavioral action acts as new information
that goes through the info processing
system and is encoded into our schema
relating to the topic
– Perceived success, failure becomes a guide
to new action brought on by perceived needs,
etc.