Transcript File - Farrell`s Class Page

Ways to use deep processing
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Actively question new info
Relate info to things you already know
Generate own examples of concepts
Think about its implications
Don’t highlight passages as you read
• Focus on the ideas in the text
Which level is more effective in
recalling words?
Type of Processing
Deep
Semantic
(type of…)
Shallow - Acoustic
Acoustic
(rhymes with...)
Shallow - Visual
Visual
(written in capitals?)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Percent of words recalled
Deep processing leads
to better
recall
than
Copyright
© Allyn
& Bacon
2007 shallow processing
How Do We
Retrieve Memories?
Whether memories are
implicit or explicit, successful
retrieval depends on how
they were encoded and how
they are cued
Implicit and Explicit Memory
Implicit Memory
Memory that was not
deliberately learned or
of which you have no
conscious awareness or
memory of ever having
learned them
Procedural memories are
often implicit, but not
always
In daily life, people rely on
implicit memory in the
form of procedural
memory…..
…the type of memory that
allows people to
remember how to tie
their shoes or ride a
bicycle without
consciously thinking
about these activities.
Implicit and Explicit Memory
Explicit Memory For Example:
Memory that has
-Answers to a test
been processed with
-Remembering the
attention and can be
time of an
consciously recalled
appointment
-Recalling your
favorite Christmas
Retrieval Cues
Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to
consciousness or into behavior
Cue Card
 Déjà
Vu
(French for ‘already seen’)

Cues from the current
situation may
subconsciously trigger
retrieval of an earlier
similar experience

"I've experienced
this before."
Retrieval Cues
 Priming
Technique for retrieving implicit memories
by providing cues that stimulate a
memory without awareness of the
connection between the cue and the
retrieved memory
Priming

If you are presented with the following
words:
assassin, octopus, avocado,
mystery, sheriff, climate
Priming

An hour later, you would easily be able to
identify which of the following words you
had previously seen:
twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery
Priming

However, an hour later, you would also
have a much easier time filling in the
blanks of some of these words than
others:
ch_ _ _ _ nk
o _ t _ _ _ us
_ oog _ y _ _ _
_ l _ m _ te
Priming

While you did not actively try to
remember “octopus” and “climate” from
the first list, they were primed in the
reading, which made them easier to
identify in this task
chipmunk
octopus
boogeyman
climate
Retrieving Explicit Memories
• Anything stored in LTM must be “filed”
according to its pattern or meaning.
• So the best way to add material to the
LTM is to associate it with material
already in the LTM
Recall and Recognition
Recall
Technique for
retrieving explicit
memories in which
one must reproduce
previously presented
information
Example: On an essay
test, you must create
answers entirely
from memory with
only the help of a few
cues.
Recall and Recognition
Recognition
Technique for retrieving
explicit memories in
which one must identify
present stimuli as
having been previously
presented
Example: On a multiple
choice test, you only
have to identify a
previous stimulus
(answer)
Other Factors Affecting
Retrieval
Encoding Specificity Principle
The more closely the retrieval clues match
the form in which the information was
encoded, the better the information will be
remembered
Example: Test questions need to be presented
on a test in a similar context in which they
were presented in the class.
Other Factors Affecting
Retrieval
Mood Congruent Memory
A memory process that
selectively retrieves
memories that match
one’s mood
• A happy moods is likely to
trigger happy memories
• Depression perpetuates
itself through the retrieval
of depressing memories
TOT (tip of the tongue)
Phenomenon
The inability to
recall a word,
while knowing
that it is in
memory.
Explained by a
poor match
between a
retrieval cue and
the LTM
Watch Tip of the Tongue
Learning video on Youtube
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T36
I8Coiz64
•
Why Does Memory
Sometimes Fail Us?
Most of our memory
problems arise from
memory’s “Seven Sins” –
which are really by-products
of otherwise adaptive
features of human memory
Memory Failure
Memory’s “Seven Sins”
Transience
AbsentMindedness
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Persistence
Blocking
Transience
Long term memories gradually weaken over
time
Forgetting Curve
A graph plotting the amount of retention and
forgetting over time for a certain batch of material
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Percent retained
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5
10
15
Days
20
25
Recall decreases rapidly, then
reaches a plateau, after which
little more is forgotten
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
30
Absent-Mindedness
Forgetting caused by
lapses in attention
Blocking
• Forgetting that occurs
when an item in
memory cannot be
accessed or retrieved
• Caused by
interference
– Proactive interference
– Retroactive interference
– Serial position effect
Blocking
Proactive Interference:
Earlier learning interferes with memory for
later information
Old memories move ‘forward’ in time to block
your attempt at new learning
Example:
When you drive a new far, you still reach for
where the radioCopyright
was© Allyn
in &your
old car
Bacon 2007
Blocking
Retroactive Interference:
New information interferes with memory for
information learned earlier
New material reaches back into your memory to
block old material
• Example: After driving your Mom’s car that
has no clutch, you forget to use the clutch
when your drive you own car
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Blocking
Serial Position Effect:
Interference related to the sequence in
which information is presented
…usually items in the middle of a
sequence are remembered less than
lose first (primacy effect) or last
(recency effect)
Serial Position Effect
Probability of Recall
1.00
Theoretically, the primacy effect represents recall
from long-term memory and the recency effect
represents recall from short-term memory.
Primacy
Effect
.50
.00
1
5
Recency
Effect
10
Serial Position of Item
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
15
•
•
•
In a 1966 experiment, subjects were shown a series of 15 words, then
tested for their recall of the words immediately or after 30 seconds.
When tested immediately, people remembered items at the beginning
and end of the series better than those in the middle.
Memory for words at the end of the list faded when the test was
delayed 30 seconds.
Next-in-line-Effect:
When you are so
anxious about
being next that
you cannot
remember what
the person just
before you in line
says, but you can
recall what other
people around
you say.
Misattribution
• Memory fault that occurs when
memories are retrieved, but they are
associated with the wrong time, place,
or person
The older the memory, the more likely it
is to suffer misattribution.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Challenger Study
•
Immediately after the Challenger
tragedy, researchers at Emory
University asked students to write
down what they were doing when
they heard the news.
•
A year later, the researchers asked
the same students to write down
their memories of the event again.
•
These later descriptions were
riddled with misattributions.
•
But misattributions can be
startlingly strong.
•
When told of the discrepancies, the
students had trouble believing that
their memories were inaccurate.
•
Three years later, when the
students were once again asked to
recall the Challenger explosion,
their recollections were closer to
their second accounts.
1986
Suggestibility
When external cues
distort or create
memories
• Suggestibility refers to false
memories that you develop
because someone or
something gives you some
key information at the same
time that you’re trying to
retrieve a memory.
Suggestibility
• Imagine that you saw
someone fleeing from a
car as its antitheft alarm
was blaring.
• You didn’t get a good
look at the thief, but
another person on the
street insisted that it was
a man wearing a green
plaid jacket.
• Later, when the police
show you photos of
possible suspects, you’re
confused until you see a
man dressed in green
plaid coat.
• Then you point to him.
Suggestibility
Misinformation Effect
The distortion of memory by suggestion or
misinformation
Fabricated Memories
False memories created through credible
suggestions
Misinformation Effect
• Loftus and Palmer found in studies that
after seeing two cars collide, responses
depended heavily upon how the
questions were worded….using the
word ‘smash’ instead of ‘hit’
Misinformation Effects
A
week
later
they
were
Eyewitnesses
reconstruct
their
memories
Group when
A: How
fast
were
the
cars
questioned about the event.
asked:
going when they
hit each other?
Was there any broken glass?
Group B: How fast were the cars
Group B (smashed into)
going when they smashed into
reported
more
broken
glass
each other?
than
Group
Aaccident.
(hit).
Depiction
of the actual
Loftus’ and Palmer’s
research shows that if
false memories (lost
at the mall or almost
drowning in a lake)
are implanted in
individuals, they
construct (fabricate)
these memories
Loftus and Palmer
Watch Loftus and Palmer Automobile Destruction video
on Youtube
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hwEUaOeuFQ&fea
ture=related
Or
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qbP43N95MKM&fe
ature=related
Memory Construction
Depiction of actual accident
 Eyewitnesses
reconstruct
memories when
questioned
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction
Fabricated Memories
Repressed or Constructed?
Some adults actually do forget childhood episodes of
abuse.
False Memory Syndrome
A condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly
believed memory of a traumatic experience, which is
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=il0u2s_WGXA&feature
=fvwrel