Transcript document

Chapter 6
Height & Weight
Brain
Motor
Puberty
(sexual development)
Height & Weight
• Body proportions
1. Cephalocaudal
2. Proximodistal
• Skeletal
development
1. Fontanelles
2. Skeletal age
• Muscular
development
Adolescent Growth Spurt
Changes in Body Proportions
Cephalocaudal
Proximodistal
Skeletal development
Number
Ossification
Variations
• I_______ variations
• C______ variations
(food, disease, emotional climate  rate of physical growth)
Brain Growth Spurt
• 7th prenatal month -- ___ years old
• > ___% eventual brain weight is gained
Neuron
Glia: nerve cells, nourish neurons and encase them in insulating sheaths of myelin.
Myelin: insulator, speed up transmission
myelinization
Neuron
D____
M____ sheath
A____
Glia:.
Myelin:
myelinization
Where is the synapse?
Axon
dendrite
Synaptogenesis
Formation of connections
(synapses) among neurons
Cerebrum
Left, right hemispheres + corpus callosum
Cerebral cortex
C______
Left, right h_____ + c____ c____
C____ c____
Cerebral lateralization
Left
Right
Right body
left body
language
Music
Hearing
Visual, spatial
Decision making
Touch
Positive emotion
Negative emotion
Cerebral lateralization
Sensory cortex
(decision
making)
(perception)
Wernicke’s area
(understanding of
spoken English)
Broca’s area
(vision)
(speech production)
Auditory cortex
(hearing)
(verbal memory)
(equilibrium, coordination)
When does lateralization begin?
• Prenatal period
2/3 of all fetuses, ____ ears facing outward
(left hemisphere’s specialization in language processing)
Newborns
• Speech sounds stimulate more electrical activity in the
___ side of the cerebral cortex than in the ____.
• Most newborns turn to the _______ rather than turn to
the _____ when they lie on their backs.
• Later, these same babies tend to reach for objects with
their ______ hands.
Plasticity
1.Capacity for change
2.Highly responsive to effects of experiences
No stimulation  lose synapses (synaptic pruning)
• Neural plasticity -- Reisen’s study
Visual deprivation
> ___ months, irreversible
Heavier brain
Stimulation
(Enriched environments)
More extensive networks of
neural connections
Less  lose
Myelinization
• Brain
skeletal muscles
neural pathway myelinate
Enclosed in waxy myelin sheaths that facilitate the
transmission of neural impulses
Lift head and chest
Reach with arms and hands
Roll over
Sit
Stand
Walk and run
How to explain the sequencing and
timing of early motor development?
• Maturational Viewpoint
Unfold of generically programmed sequence of events
• Experiential (or practical) Hypothesis
Opportunities to practice also important, orphans
• Dynamic systems theory (goal directed)
Active reorganizations of previously mastered capabilities
Fine Motor Development
•
Voluntary reaching
•
•
•
Newborns: Grasping reflex, prereach (hit or miss)
2 month:
disappear,
occur less
>=3 month: voluntary reaching (extend arms and make
in-flight corrections, gradually improve in accuracy
•
Manipulatory Skills
1.
2.
Ulnar grasp: press the fingers against the palm
Pincer grasp: thumb in opposition to the fingers, lift
and fondle
Motor Development
• Toddler
eye-hand coordination
Control of small muscles
• Age 5
Button
Tie shoes
Copy designs
Cut a straight line
• Age 8/9
Screwdrivers
Jacks and Nintendo
• Older children
Quicker reaction times
• Physically
active play
Run, jump, climb, play
fighting, game playing
Puberty
• Adolescence growth spurt
Girls: 10.51213/13.5, boys: lag by 2-3 years
• Puberty: sexual maturity, physically capable of
fathering or conceiving a child
Menarche: first occurrence of menstruation
Secular Trends: Earlier maturation, grow taller, heavier
Better nutrition, medical care
Strenuous physical activity
Parenting
• Promotion of volitional functioning (PVF)
Parents guide or scaffold an adolescent’s
decision making, allow self-determination
• Behavioral control
Attempts to Regulate adolescent’s conduct, firm
discipline and monitoring
Body Image
• Unhealthy weight control strategies
1. Anorexia nervosa: self starvation
2. Bulimia: recurrent eating binges + purging
activities (laxatives, vomit)
Parents:
self-esteem
participate family meals
Social Impacts
• Rites of passage
signify the passage from one period of life to another
• Timing of Puberty
Boys: early  social advantage (poised, confident, athletic
honors, student offices, educational aspiration, school achievement)
Girls: early  social disadvantage (steer away from academic
pursuits, smoke, drink, drug use, sex)
• Sexuality
self referring to erotic thoughts, actions and
orientation
• Double standard
Consequences of Adolescent
Sexual Activity
• No contraception
STD (1/5 active adolescents)
Teenage pregnancy
• STD
Sterility
Death
Birth defects
Other complications
Causes and Correlations of
Physical Development
• Individual genotype
(uncertain)
• Hormone
Pituitary
1. “Master gland”
2. Growth hormone (GH)
3. estrogen (female, ovaries),
testosterone (male, testes)
Nutrition, Illness, Emotional Stress
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Catch-up growth
Marasmus (lack protein + calories)
Kwashiorkor (lack protein)
Vitamin and mineral deficiency
Iron deficiency anemia
Obese
Nonorganic failure to thrive (lack of attention)
• Deprivation dwarfism
Kwashiorkor
(lack of calories +protein)
(lack of protein)
Chapter 7
• Cognitive development
1. Piaget’s theory
2. Vygotsky’s socialcultural viewpoint
Jean Piaget
Swiss Scholar
1896-1980
Cognitive development
theory
Scheme, assimilation,
disequilibrium, accommodation
4 stages of cognitive
development
Lev Vygotsky
Russian Jewish
developmental psychologist
1896-1934
Sociocultural theory
Cognitive growth is socially
mediated
Scaffold
acquire culuture’s values, beliefs,
problem solving strategies through
collaborative dialogues with more
knowledgeable members of society
Piaget
Lev Vygotsky
Cognitve development
theory
sociocultural theory
Independent explorer,
discover on their own
socially mediated activity
with more competent
people
Piaget
• Constructivst - gain knowledge by acting, operating on objects or
events, to discover properties
Children actively construct new understandings
• Scheme- thought or action to make sense of experience
• Equilibrium-harmony between schemes and experience
• Assimilation- interpret new experience by incorporating
into
existing schemes
• Disequilibriums- contradiction
• Accomodation- modify the existing schemes to adapt to new
experiences
Piaget
• Scheme• Equilibrium• Assimilation• Disequilibriums-
• Accomodation• Organization- combine and integrate available schemes
into coherent systems or bodies of knowledge
Sensorimotor
Birth -- 2 Innate reflexes
Preoperational
2--7
Use symbolism images and language to
represent and understand environment
Thought is egocentric
Concrete
Operational
7—11/12
Logical thoughts
Formal
Operational
11/12
years
on
Thought is systematic and abstract
Primary
Secondary
Coordination
Tertiary
Symbolic
Invariant Developmental Sequence
Reflex Activity
Birth – 1 m
Primary circular
reactions
1—4m
Secondary circular
reactions
4—8m
External objects, repeat (squeeze a
rubber duck)
Coordination of
secondary
reactions
8-12m
Goal-directed
Coordinate two or more actions
Tertiary circular
reactions
12—18m
Devise new methods, repeat
Symbolic problem
solving
18-24m
Mental symbols, images
Experiment mentally
(Inner experimentation)
Own body, repeat (suck thumbs,
make cooing sounds)
Sensorimotor
Birth -- 2
Deferred imitation
Object permanence
A-not-B error
(neo-nativism, theory theories)
Preoperational
2--7
Symbolic function (symbol -- objects, experiences)
Representational insight (entity – other)
Dual representation (dual encoding)
Animism, Egocentric,
appearance/reality distinction
Centration, decentration,
conservation, reversibility (identity training)
Theory of mind (TOM)
(concept of mental activity, intention, predict behaviors)
belief-desire reasoning, false-belief task
Concrete
Operational
7—11/12
Conservation
Mental seriation
Transitivity (A>B, B>C, then…)
Horizontal decalage (mass>volumn)
Formal
Operational
11/12
years
on
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning (hypothesis, test in
experiments)
Imaginary audience
Reflex Activity
Birth – 1 m
Primary circular
reactions
1—4m
Secondary circular
reactions
4—8m
Coordination of
8-12m
secondary reactions
Tertiary circular
reactions
12—18m
Symbolic problem
solving
18-24m
• Imitation
8-12m: imitate novel response
12-18: voluntary imitation
18-24: deferred imitation (mental symbols)
(others: 6m, imitate simple acts after 24h)
• Object permanence
• 1-4m: not search
• 4-8m: partially concealed
• 8-12m: object permanence, A-not-B error
(where they previously found)
• 12-18m: where they were last seen
can’t make mental inference
Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory
Contributions
• Genetic epistemology (development of knowledge,
discipline of cognitive development)
• Children: active explorers
• Explain (not just describe) process of development
• Accurate overview of different ages, think, broad
sequences of intellectual development
• Influence and practical implications for educators
• Heuristic theories, repeated scrutinize
Criticism- Underestimate
• Neo-nativism: born with substantial innate knowledge
object permanence- genetic heritage
(no development, no experience needed)
Karen Wynn (1992) research, 5m object permanence + memory
Symbolic ability- very earliest months
deferred imitation (neonatal imitation)  no sensorimotor period
limited motor skills
memory deficits
Control over motor responses
• Theory theories (neo-nativism + piaget)
Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory
Challenges
• Competence vs. performance
• Stages vs. gradually
• “Explain”? (Experiences  next stage?)
• Too little attention to Social and culture
influence
Vygotsky’s Sociolcultural
Perspective
•
•
•
•
•
Sociocultural theory
Ontogenetic development (lifetime)
Microgenetic development (minutes, days)
Phylogenetic development (evolutionary)
Sociohistorical development (values,
norms, technologies)
Vygotsky’s Sociolcultural
Perspective
• Tools of intellectual adaptation
methods, strategies, internalize from interactions
(take notes – tie a knot, Chinese numbers)
一，
二， 三， 四， 五， 六，七，八，九，十
十一， 十二，十三，十四，十五…………………… 二十
二十一，二十二，………………………………………… 三十
星期一， 星期二，星期三，星期四，星期五，星期六，星期日
Monday, ? ,
? ,
?
一月，
January,
二月， 三月， 四月， 五月，………… 十二月
? ,
? ， ?
Vygotsky’s Sociolcultural
Perspective
• Zone of proximal development
Difference
Accomplish independently
accomplish with guidance and encouragement
Vygotsky’s Sociolcultural
Perspective
• Scaffolding (respond contingently, gradually
increase) (siblings, symbolic play)
• Guided participation (culturally relevant activities)
• Context-independent learning
Piaget vs. Vygotsky
• Implications for Education
• Role of language in Cognitive development
Egocentric speech (nonsocial, collective monologues)
(very little role)
private speech (self-communication, guide thinking,
(critical role, plan strategies, regulate behaviors)
Cognitive self-guidance system
(private speech  inner speech)
Piaget
Universal sequence of
cognitive development
Independent exploration
vs.
Vygotsky
Wide variations
cultural experience
tool of adaptation
Social interaction
Egocentric  social
Social  individualpsychological
(Social speech private speech
 inner speech)
Peers
Adults
Many testable hypotheses
Not theory, but perspective
Chapter 8
Multistore model
Attention
Memory
Analogical reasoning
Arithmetic skills
Information-processing
Perspective
• Computer
• Human mind
• Hardware
• Nervous system
Key board
Storage capacity
Logic units
• Software (programs)
Word processing
Statistics
Brain
Sensory receptors
Neural connections
• Rules, Strategies
(mental programs)
Multistore model
• Sensory store
Vision, hearing, hold large quantities of information but only
for brief periods
• Short-term store
Working memory, several seconds
• Long-term store
Permanently
Past experiences, events, strategies
Adaptive Strategy Choice Model
• 5+3=?
Sum strategy
Min strategy
Fact retrieval
Adaptive Strategy Choice Model
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Multiple strategies
Age
Experience
Improved information
Processing abilities
Sophisticated strategies
New problems, fallback strategy
•
•
•
•
•
•
Implicit cognition thought
Explicit cognition thought
Metacognition
Implicit learning
Implicit memory
Multifaceted, no single course
Attention
• Attention span
Captured by distractions
Unable to inhibit intrusion of task-irrelevant thoughts
• Reticular formation
Not fully myelinated until puberty
• Selective attention
Task-relevant stimuli
Not distracted by noise
• Attention-deficit/ hyperactivitiy disorder (ADHD)
Memory
• Event memory (autobiographical memories,
natural, no strategy needed)
• Strategic memory
• Mnemonics: rehearsal, organization, elaboration
(memory strategies)
Autobiographical Memory
• Deferred imitation (first evidence of event memory)
• Infantile amnesia
• Scripted memory
Script: sequencing of events in some familiar context
• Social construction of autobiographical memory
Parents: collaborate by asking questions
• Eyewitness
Exact details vs. gist information
Please, comply with adults
Development of Memory Strategies
• Rehearsal
Older children > younger children
Active, cumulative rehearsal
Working-memory capacity
• Organization
• Retrieval
Free recall
Cued recall
• Metamemory
(Know limits, something easier to remember, strategies help)
4-12y: increase
7/9: strategy
11: organization > rehearsal
>=10y: metamemory memory
Development of Memory Strategies
• Knowledge base
Expert > novice
• Culture
Schooled
1. Rote memorization
2. List learning
Unschooled
1. Location of objects in natural settings
2. Orally transmitted stories
(Vygotsky: cognitive development within cultural context)
Analogical Reasoning
• Analogical Reasoning (known unknown)
(A is to B as C is to _____)
• Similarity relations
• Relational primacy hypothesis (infancy)
(Usha Goswami, 1996)
• Relational similarity
• Perceptual similarity
Analogical Reasoning
• Knowledge base
Piage: 6/7y
Goswami: 3-4y familiar (3 bears)
• Training
Learning to learn
Arithmetic Skills
• Infants: <= 4 objects (discriminate visual displays)
• 5m:
2 left 
(not 1 or 3)
• 16-18m: ordinal (3>2)
big, lots, small, little
Arithmetic Skills
• Counting
3-4 m: one-to-one
4.5 - 5m: cardinality
• Sum strategies
Fingers
Mentally
Decomposition: 13+3=? (10+3+3=10+6=16)
Fact retrieval (long-term memory)
Reaction time , sophistication, but not stagelike
(adaptive strategy choice model)
Arithmetic Skills
• Cultural difference (Not inherent smart)
East Asian > American
(First grade/preschool: decomposition)
• Unschooled children (real-life context)
• Linguistic supports
(How the language describe , organized concepts)
Fraction: tools of intellectual adaptation
• Instructional supports: more practice
Chapter 9
• Psychometric approach
• Alfred Binet’s Singular Component
• Mental age
Number series, arithmetic reasoning, verbal reasoning,
vocabulary, verbal analogies, general information,
Picture series
Puzzle completions
Picture oddities
Multicomponent Theories of
Intelligence
• Factor analysis
• Charles Spearman (1927)
g (correlated)
s
• Louis Thurstone (1938)
• 7 Primary mental abilities
(spatial, perceptual speed, numerical reasoning, verbal
meaning, word fluency, memory, inductive reasoning)
Later Multicomponent
• J. P. Guilford
Structure-of-intellect
model (5 x 6 x 6 =180)
Content (what must think
about) 5
Operations (what kind of
thinking to perform) 6
Products (what kind of
answers) 6
Later Multicomponent
•
Raymond Cattell and John Horn
1. Fluid intelligence (novel, abstract)
2. Crystallized intelligence (acquired knowledge)
Hierarchical Model
General ability
8 Specialized
Reciting poems
heard only once
John Carroll’s three-stratum theory of intelligence
Triarchic theory of intelligence
•
Robert Sternberg
1. Context (street smarts, culture, historical time, life span)
2. Experience (novel, familiar)
3. Information-processing skills (rather than
the correctness of answers)
Theory of Multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner
• A specific area of the brain
• Different developmental course
• Injury
1. Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”)
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence
(“number/reasoning smart”)
3. Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”)
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”)
5. Musical intelligence (“music smart”)
6. Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”)
7. Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”)
8. Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)
9. Spiritual/existential (philosopher, theologian)
Measured?
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
General + 4 factors (verbal reasoning, quantitative r,
spatial r, short-term memory)
(IQ: in___ qu____ )
MA
IQ = -------------- X 100
CA
Test norms (large representative sample)
Deviation IQ scores (compare with same age)
The Wechsler Scales
•
General + 2 factors (verbal, performance)
1.
2.
Children from all backgrounds
Sensitive to inconsistencies in mental skills
•
Group tests (SAT, ACT, GRE)
•
New approaches
1. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
(K-ABC) (nonverbal, fluid intelligence)
2. Dynamic assessment (learn new material when
provided with competent instruction)
•
Feuerstein’s Learning Potential Assessment Device
Infant Intelligence
• Developmental quotient (DQ)
Bayley Scales of Infant Development (2-30m)
Motor scale (grasp a cube, throw a ball, drink from a cup)
Mental scale (categorize, search a hidden toy, follow direction)
Infant Behavioral Record (goal directedness, fearfulness, social
responsivity)
DQ  IQ ? (not great)
(verbal reasoning, concept formation, problem solving)
Stability of IQ
• reasonably stable over time after age 4
• Individual fluctuation (either increase or decrease
over time)
Cumulative-deficit hypothesis
Impoverished environment dampen intellectual growth,
effects accumulate over time
Intelligence Tests Predict
• Scholastic achievement
• Vocational outcomes
tacit (practical) intelligence: ability size up everyday
problem, modestly related to IQ
• Health, adjustment, life satisfaction
Mental retardation: 3%, impairments in adaptive
behaviors as self-care and social skills
Factors influence IQ
• Heredity
Twin studies (identical twins > fraternal twins and non-twin siblings)
Adoption studies
• Environment
Flynn effect (systematic increase over the 20th century)
Adoption studies
• IQ is influenced by the transaction of heredity and
environment, both equally important and influential
in their own way
Home Environment
•
9/10 environmental factors are characteristics of home
and families
•
Home inventory
(Bettye Caldwell and Robert Bradley, amount and type of intellectual
stimulation)
1.
Ask parents daily routine and child-rearing practices
2.
Observe interactions
3.
Note play materials
Infancy: age-appropriate play materials + variety in daily
stimulation  future IQ
Preschool: parental warmth, stimulation of language and
academic behaviors  future IQ
Social-class and Ethnic Difference
• Lower- and working-class < middle-class
(exception: infants)
• African A, Native A < European A
• Asian A = > European A
• African A (verbal test)
• Hispanic A and Native A (spatial)
Why do groups differ in IQ?
• Cultural/test-bias hypothesis
• Genetic hypothesis (middle class, white)
Level I abilities (attention, short memory)
Level II abilities (abstract reasoning and problem reasoning)
• Environmental hypothesis
Compensatory Education
•
Head Start
• Parental involvement
Two-generation intervention
1. Stimulate children’s intellectual development
2. Help parents to move out of poverty
Diffusion effect
Intervene Early
• Head Start (after age 3, effects disappear at grade 1
or 2)
• Carolina Abecedarian Project (6-12 weeks,
effects carry through age 15)
• A special day-care program
• 7:15am -5:15pm, 5 days, 50 weeks, until enter school
Creativity
• Giftedness (high IQ + singular talents)
• Convergent thinking (only one correct answer)
• Divergent thinking (variety of ideas or solutions)
Investment theory of creativity
(Sternberg & Lubart, 1996)
•
Buy low  sell high
(growth potential, persist in face of
skepticism)
•
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Convergence of creative resources
Intellectual resources (find problem, evaluate idea)
Knowledge (insights comes to the prepared mind)
Cognitive style (divergent, broad, global)
Personality (risks, persevere, defy crowd)
Motivation (passion, work itself not rewards)
A supportive environment
Chapter 10 Language
Vocables (prelinguistic infants, Rrrrrrh,
Aaaaah)
Five components
• Phonology (sound, b/d, t/h)
• Morphology (-ing, -s, -ed, formation of words)
• Semantics (meaning)
Morphemes(dog, yellow, -ed)
1. Free morphemes
2. Bound morphemes
• Syntax (grammar)
• Pragmatic (social context)
Theories
Linguistic universals
• Nativist
Biologically programmed
LAD (language acquisition device)
Universal grammar
• Empiricist
Learning perspective
(imitation, reinforced, correct)
Biological maturation
• Interactionist
Cognitive development
Ever-changing language environment
Means of communicating
Which theorist would support it?
• Language is too complex and children can learn
language very fast.
• Children reach milestones at same age despite their
culture.
• Language is species specific
• Brain specialization.
1. Aphasia (loss of language function)
2. Broca’s area (production, not comprehension)
3. Wernicke’s area (speak well, not understand well)
• Sensitive-period hypothesis
Second language, before puberty
Rule of syntax, but not meaning of many words
Which theorist would support it?
• 12m, first meaning words, symbolism in
pretend play, deferred imitation (language –
biology, cognitive)
• “gone”, object permanence (language cognitive)
• Joint activities (laugh, babble, turn taking)
• Child-directed speech (Motherese, expansions,
recasts)
• conversation
Prelinguistic phase
Intonational cues, phonology
0-10/13m
Coos (vowel)
Babbles (vowel/consonant)
Gestures & nonverbal communication
7-8m silent, wait for turn
Receptive language (understand)
Productive language (say)
12m-13m understand without pointing
Holophrase period
(single word)
Telegraphic period
one word represent entire sentences
(asking, naming, requesting)
Naming explosion
Multimodal motherese (exaggerated
utterance + action)
Fast mapping
Overextension (car for all vehicles) ,
underextension(candy refer only to mints)
Daddy eat, kitty go
(eat Daddy, go kitty, word order)
18-24m (content words,
omit less meaningful words) Pragmatics (turn taking, look upsignal
Individual and cultural variations
• Referential style (label objects)
• Expressive style (express feelings, regulate
interaction, please, thank you, don’t, stop it)
• Referential style > Expressive style
• American mothers: It’s a doggie! (label)
• Japanese mothers: Give the doggie love! (social
routine, interpersonal harmony)
Strategies
• Social cues
• Contextual cues
•
•
•
•
Processing constraints (sentence structure)
Object scope constraint (whole, not part)
Mutual exclusivity constraint
Lexical contrast constraint (dog, cocker
spaniel)
• Syntactical bootstrapping
This is a zav. (name of a toy)
This is a zav one. (characteristics of a toy)
Daddy is eating cabbage. (leafy substance)