Transcript Memory - UPM EduTrain Interactive Learning

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Have you ever wondered
◦ how you manage to remember information for a
test?
◦ How you are able to create new memories, store
them for periods of time, and recall them when they
are needed.
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This is due to our MEMORY.
But what exactly is memory? And How are
memories formed?
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Memory refers to the processes that are used
to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve
information.
There are three major processes involved in
memory:
◦ encoding,
◦ storage and
◦ retrieval.
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Encoding or registration (receiving, processing and
combining of received information)
Storage (creation of a permanent record of the encoded
information)
Retrieval, recall or recollection (calling back the stored
information in response to some cue for use in a
process or activity)
◦ In order to form new memories, information must be changed
into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as
encoding.
◦ Once information has been successfully encoded, it must be
stored in memory for later use.
◦ Most of the stored memory lies outside of our awareness most
of the time, except when we actually need to use it.
◦ The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into
conscious awareness.
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Memory is the core to most of our cognitive
process. Because….
◦ Memory is the storing of learned information, and the
ability to recall that which has been stored.
◦ The mental faculty of retaining and recalling past
experience.
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Research indicates that the ability to retain
information is fairly uniform among normal
individuals what differs is the degree to which
persons learn or take account of something to
begin with and the kind and amount of detail that
is retained.
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Memory and learning are the basis of
all our knowledge and abilities.
◦ Learning – is the process of acquiring new
knowledge, while….
◦ Memory – helps retain the learned knowledge.
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Thus, memory is the brain’s ability to
acquire, store, retain and retrieve
information.
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Memory can be classified into 2 primary types:
◦ Explicit memory - Declarative memory (conscious
memory)
◦ Implicit memory – procedural memory (automatic &
unconscious)
Memory
Explicit
STM
IMPLICIT
LTM
Priming
Conditioning
Motor
skills
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Explicit Memory
(can be divided into STM & LTM)
◦ It allows a person to recall consciously & describe verbally
information, e.g. facts, people etc
◦ Types of memory that contains info re specific events that
happen at a specific time & place.
◦ Forming & storing memory are associated with past
experience/knowledge.
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Implicit Memory
(repetition priming, conditioning & motor skills)
◦ Previous experience assist a person to perform task
without any conscious awareness of the past experience.
◦ Through repetition priming & skill learning – a person
would become better on task performance
SENSORY
MEMORY
Long Term
Memory
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Sensory register
◦ Part of memory that receives all the information a
person senses from the environment and stores it
fleetingly.
Short term memory
◦ A part where new information is stored temporarily,
until it is either lost or placed into long term memory
 Also known as working memory, where a decision
must be made to discard information or to transfer it
to permanent storage, in long-term memory.
Long Term memory
◦ Part of memory which has unlimited capacity & can
hold information indefinitely.
 the encyclopedic mental processing unit in which
information may be stored permanently and from
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Short term memory
◦ A temporary storage area that is used for
unprocessed visual or auditory information that
last up to 30 sec.
◦ STM -limited capacity - up to 7 pieces of
independent information.
◦ Memory loss is due to decaying of information.
◦ 3 basic operations in STM:
 Iconic memory –ability to hold visual image
 Acoustic memory – the ability to hold sounds
 Working memory –process that temporarily
store & manipulate information for immediate
use
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Long Term memory
◦ Part of memory which has unlimited
capacity & can hold information
indefinitely.
◦ LTM can be divide into :
 Episodic memory – memory of specific
events or episodes that an individual
experienced
 Semantic memory – memory that
includes knowledge of words meaning
and is an essential element of
language.
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The ability to access and retrieve information from
long-term memory allows us to actually use these
memories to
◦ make decisions,
◦ interact with others,
◦ solve problems, etc
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Exactly how are information organized in memory is
unclear, but researchers do know that these memories
are arranged in groups.
Desk,
apple,
bookshelf, red,
plum, table, green,
pineapple, purple,
chair, peach, yellow
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Clustering is used to organize related information
into groups.
Information that is categorized becomes easier to
remember and recall.
For example, consider the following group of
words: Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table,
green, pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow
◦ Spend a few seconds reading them, then look
away and try to recall and list these words.
◦ How did you group the words when you listed
them?
◦ Most people will list using three different
categories: color, furniture and fruit.
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One way of thinking about memory organization
is known as the semantic network model.
This model suggests that certain triggers activate
associated memories  i.e. a memory of a
specific place might activate memories about
related things that have occurred in that place.
◦ For example, thinking about a certain campus
building might trigger memories of attending
classes, studying and socializing with peers.
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Memory retrieval is important for our daily life, e.g. from
remembering where you parked your car to learning new skills.
Once information has been encoded and stored in memory, it
must be retrieved in order to be used.
There are many factors that can influence how memories are
retrieved from long-term memory.
In order to fully understand this process, it is important to
understand exactly what retrieval is and what are the factors
that can impact how memories are retrieved.
Memory Retrieval is a process of accessing stored memories.
Retrieval cues can be use  can have an impact on how
information is retrieved.
A retrieval cue - a clue/prompt used to trigger the retrieval of
longterm memory.
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Four basic ways in which information can be pulled from long-term
memory.
◦ Recall: Type of memory retrieval involves being able to access the
information without being cued. For example, answering a
question on a fill-in-the-blank test is a good example of recall.
◦ Recollection: Type of memory retrieval involves reconstructing
memory, often utilizing logical structures, partial memories,
narratives or clues. For example, writing an answer on an essay
exam often involves remembering bits on information, and then
restructuring the remaining information based on these partial
memories.
◦ Recognition: This type of memory retrieval involves identifying
information after experiencing it again. For example, taking a
multiple choice quiz requires that you recognize the correct answer
out of a group of available answers.
◦ Relearning: This type of memory retrieval involves relearning
information that has been previously learned. This often makes it
easier to remember and retrieve information in the future and can
improve the strength of memories.
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Not every retrieval process works perfectly.
Have you ever felt like you knew the answer to a
question, but couldn't quite remember the
information?
◦ This phenomenon is known as a 'tip of the tongue'
experience. You might feel certain that this information is
stored somewhere in your memory, but you are unable to
access and retrieve it.
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Schacter (2001) said that these experiences are
extremely common, typically occurring at least
once each week for most younger individuals and
two to four times per week for elderly adults.
1. Focus your attention on the materials you are
studying.
2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions.
3. Structure and organize the information you are studying.
4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information.
5. Elaborate and rehearse the information you are studying.
6. Relate new information to things you already know.
7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall.
8. Teach new concepts to another person.
9. Pay extra attention to difficult information.
10. Vary your study routine.
1.
Focus your attention on the materials you are studying.
Attention is a major components of memory. For information to
move from short-term memory into long-term memory need to
actively attend to this information. Try to study in a place free of
distractions such as television, music and other diversions.
2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions.
According to Bjork (2001), studying materials over a number of
session's gives you the time you need to adequately process the
information. Those who study regularly remember the material far
better than those who did all of their studying in one marathon
session.
3. Structure and organize the information you are studying.
Researchers have found that information is organized in memory in
related clusters. S0, structure & organize the materials you are
studying. Try grouping similar concepts and terms together, or make
an outline of your notes/textbook readings to help group related
concepts.
4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information.
◦ A mnemonic is simply a way to remember informatio  a
technique used to aid in recall. For example, you might
associate a term you need to remember with a common item
that you are very familiar with (rhyme). Use a rhyme,
song/joke to help remember.
5. Elaborate & rehearse the information you are studying.
◦ In order to recall information, you need to encode what you
are studying into long-term memory  use elaborative
rehearsal. An example of this technique would be to read the
definition of a key term, study the definition of that term and
then read a more detailed description of what that term
means. After repeating this process a few times, your recall
of the information will be far better.
6. Relate new information to things you already know.
 Establishing relationships between new ideas and previously
existing memories, When you are studying unfamiliar
material, take the time to think about how this information
relates to things that you already know.
7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall.
 Many benefit from visualizing the information they study 
focus on the photos, charts, graphics etc. If you do not have
visual cues to help, try creating your own. Draw charts or
figures in the margins of your notes/use highlighter/pens in
different colours to group related ideas in your notes.
8. Teach new concepts to another person.
 Research suggests that reading out loud can improves
memory of the material or teaching new concepts to others
enhances understanding and recall. You can use this
approach in your own studies by teaching new concepts and
information to a friend or study partner
9. Pay extra attention to difficult information.
◦ Have you ever noticed how it's sometimes easier to remember
information at the beginning or end of a chapter? Researchers have
found that the position of information can play a role in recall,
which is known as the serial position effect. While recalling middle
information can be difficult, you can overcome this problem by
spending extra time rehearsing this information. Another strategy
is to try restructuring the information so it will be easier to
remember. When you come across an especially difficult concept,
devote some extra time to memorizing the information.
10. Vary your study routine.
◦ Another great way to increase your recall is to occasionally change
your study routine. If you are accustomed to studying in one
specific location, try moving to a different spot to study. If you
study in the evening, try spending a few minutes each morning
reviewing the information you studied the previous night. By
adding an element of novelty to your study sessions, you can
increase the effectiveness of your efforts and significantly improve
your long-term recall.
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Important for us to understand how our
memory succeeds and fails because it helps
us to uncover the limits of memory in our
everyday life.
Types of memory
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Good memory
Autobiographical Memory
Prospective Memory
Memory across lifespan
Eyewitness memory
False Memories
Memory damage
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Types of memory ◦ Good memory – we can recognize easily using
visual stimuli, but poor recall for pictures and
faces.
◦ Autobiographical Memory – recall personal events
especially those that are emotionally based.
◦ Prospective Memory – remembering to do things
or failure to do so rather than remembering past
events or facts.
◦ Memory across lifespan – our memory improves as
we get older, but slower around 65 years old.
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Types of memory ◦ Eyewitness memory – memory details of events we
just saw is often difficult
◦ False Memories – the questions is whether a
memory is genuine or distorted due to misleading
questions or information.
◦ Memory damage – loss of memory due to brain
damage through infection, stroke or head injury
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When Memory Fails?
Forgetting typically involves a failure in memory retrieval.
While the information is somewhere in your long-term
memory, you are not able to actually retrieve and
remember it.
Forgetting (retention loss) refers to
◦ apparent loss of information already encoded and
stored in an individual's long term memory.
◦ a spontaneous or gradual process in which old
memories are unable to be recalled from memory
storage.
It is subject to delicately balanced optimization that
ensures that relevant memories are recalled.
Forgetting can be reduced by repetition and/or more
elaborate cognitive processing of information.
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Psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (Father of Memory)
Research was one of the first to scientifically study
forgetting  used himself as the subject.
Pioneered experimental study of memory, and discovered the
forgetting curve and the spacing effect.
In order to test for new information, Ebbinghaus tested
his memory for periods of time ranging from 20
minutes to 31 days. He then published his findings in
1885 in Memory: A Contribution to Experimental
Psychology.
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EFC revealed a relationship
between forgetting and time.
How quickly these memories are
lost depend on:
 how the information was learned
 how frequently it was rehearsed
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The forgetting curve also showed
that forgetting does not continue
to decline until all of the
information is lost.
At a certain point, the amount of
forgetting levels off. What exactly
does this mean? It indicates that
information stored in long-term
memory is surprisingly stable.
The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Elizabeth Loftus, has identified four major
reasons why people forget:
1.
retrieval failure
2.
Interference
3.
failure to store
4.
motivated forgetting
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1. Retrieval Failure
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Decay theory - explain why some retrieval fails  i.e. a
memory trace is created every time a new theory is formed.
Decay theory suggests that over time, these memory traces
begin to fade and disappear.
Forgetting is simply an inability to retrieve a memory. If
information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be
lost.
 decay theory
 passage of time  forgetting
 does not explain all instances of forgetting
Interference theory suggests
that some memories compete
& interfere with other
memories. When information is
very similar to other
information that was previously
stored in memory, interference
is more likely to occur.
 2 basic types of interference:
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Proactive interference
 is when an old memory makes it
more difficult or impossible to
remember a new memory.
Retroactive interference
occurs when new information
interferes with your ability to
remember previously learned
information.
3. Failure to Store
 We also forget information because it never actually
made it into long-term memory.
 Encoding failures sometimes prevent information from
entering long-term memory.
◦ E.g: Details on your 20 cents & 50 cent coin
 Only details necessary for distinguishing the value other coins were
encoded into your long-term memory.
4. Motivated Forgetting
 Sometimes, we actively work to forget memories, esp
those of traumatic or disturbing events or experiences.
 The two basic forms of motivated forgetting are:
 suppression, a conscious form of forgetting
 repression, an unconscious form of forgetting.
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Motivated forgetting referring to a psychological
defence mechanism in which people forget
unwanted memories, either consciously or
unconsciously.
There are times when memories are reminders of
unpleasant experiences that make people angry,
sad, anxious, ashamed or afraid.
Motivated forgetting is a method in which people
protect themselves by blocking the recall of these
anxiety-arousing memories.
 E.g: if something reminds a person of an unpleasant event,
his or her mind may steer towards unrelated topics. This
could induce forgetting without being generated by an
intention to forget, making it a motivated action.
Read the following & Discuss the answers
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Neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot was the first to do research into hysteria as a psychological
disorder in the late 19th century. Sigmund Freud, Joseph Breuer, and Pierre Janet continued
with the research that Charcot began on hysteria. These three psychologists determined that
hysteria was an intense emotional reaction to some form of severe psychological disturbance,
and they proposed that incest and other sexual traumas were the most likely cause of hysteria.
The treatment that Freud, Breuer, and Pierre agreed upon was named the ‘’talking cure’’ and
was a method of encouraging patients to recover and discuss their painful memories. During
this time, Janet created the term disaociation which is referred to as a lack of integration
amongst various memories. He used dissociation to describe the way in which traumatizing
memories are stored separately from other memories. The publication of Freud’s famous paper,
“the Aetiology of Hysteria”, in 1896 led to much controversy regarding the topic of these
traumatic memories. Freud stated that neurosis were caused by repressed sexual memories,
which suggested that incest and sexual abuse must be common throughout upper and middle
class Europe. The psychological community did not accept Freud’s ideas, and years passed
without further research on the topic.It was during World War 1 and Worls War II that interest in
memory disturbances was piqued again. During this time, many cases of memory loss
appeared among war veterans, especially those who had experienced shell shock. Hypnosis
and drugs became popular for the treatment of hysteria during the war. The term post
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was introduced upon the appearance of similar cases of
memory disturbances from veterans of the Korean War. Forgetting, or the inability to recall a
portion of a traumatic event, was considered a key factor for the diagnosis of PTSD.
Ann Burgess and Lynda Holmstrom looked into trauma related memory loss in rape victims
during the 1970s. This began a large outpouring of stories related to childhood sexual abuse. It
took until 1980 to determine that memory loss due to all severe traumas was the same set of
processes. The idea of motivated forgetting began with the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in
1894. Nietzshe and Sigmund Freud had similar views on the idea of repression of memories as
a form of self-preservation. Nietzsche wrote that man must forget in able to move forward. He
stated that this process is active, in that we forget specific events as a defense mechanism.
Occipital lobe
Frontal Lobe
• Critical thinking & problem
solving
• Frontal cortex  area of the
cortex that controls
personality and the ability to
carry out plans
The hippocampus is located in
the medial temporal lobe of the
brain. In this lateral view of the
human brain, the frontal lobe is at
left, the occipital lobe at right, and
the temporal and parietal lobes
have largely been removed to
reveal the hippocampus
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underneath.
MOTIVATED
FORGETTING
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MF occurs as a result of activity that occurs within the
prefrontal cortex (i.e. the anterior cingulate cortex
(ACC), intraparietal sulcus (IS) , dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex (DPC) and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex VPC)).
◦ also associated with stopping unwanted actions, which confirms
the hypothesis that the suppression of unwanted memories and
actions follow a similar inhibitory process. These regions are also
known to have executive functions within the brain. E.g:
◦ AAC  has functions linked to motivation and emotion.
◦ IS  functions that include coordination between perception and
motor activities, visual attention, symbolic numerical processing.
◦ DPC plans complex cog activities & processes decision making.
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Another key brain structure involved in motivated
forgetting is the hippocampus  responsible for the
formation and recollection of memories.
When the process of motivated forgetting happens 
meaning that we actively attempt to suppress our
unwanted memories, the prefrontal cortex exhibits
higher activity than baseline, while suppressing
hippocampal activity at the same time.
The executive areas which control motivation and
decision-making lessen the functioning of the
hippocampus in order to stop the recollection of the
selected memories that the subject has been motivated to
forget.
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Discuss the
following:
What are the differences between explicit
memory & implicit memory? Examples
What are the differences between Episodic
memory & Semantic memory? Examples
Why do we fail to remember?
What are the differences between Ebbinghaus
theory, Decay theory & Interference theory .
Find out tip on “How Not to Forget Things”!