Transcript File - firestone falcons

Paper 1:
Section A: Short Answer Questions (all)
1.
Biological Perspective
2.
Cognitive Perspective
3.
Socio-cultural Perspective
Section B: Essay (one)
1.
Biological Perspective
2.
Cognitive Perspective
3.
Socio-cultural Perspective
Short Answer Questions
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Mini-essays
No introduction or conclusion
About 350 words/ one page answer
Always use psychological terms, concepts,
and theories to answer.
Try to mention two concepts or theories if
possible.
Paper 2:
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In paper 2 of the external assessment, a list of
twenty-one questions is given, three questions
from each of the seven options.
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You are to answer one question from the Human
Relationships option.
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You must show empirical research, consider crosscultural issues, and evaluate issues of ethics,
method, and gender.
If you always consider the following as
part of evaluations in your essays you ….
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Cultural Considerations and Biases- would there be different
results in another country with different cultural beliefs.
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Ethical Considerations: how are the participants selected?
Were they deceived? Was there consent?
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Gender Considerations and Biases: is there a difference
between males and females.
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Methodological Considerations: biases associated with each
methodological orientation. Strengths and limits of data gathering
techniques. What was done to protect the integrity of the
results?
If you always consider the following as
part of evaluations in your essays you ….
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Application: Effectiveness of the perspective in explaining
psychological and/or social questions Memory research is used
in education and therapy.
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Empirical Evidence: What scientific research has supported the
assumptions of this perspective?
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Perspective comparisons: how one perspective evaluates
another. For example the difference of opinion on Nature vs.
Nurture between the perspectives.
The researchers in the learning perspective believe you can
only use observed
behavior to reach accurate conclusions about behavior.
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
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The word empirical denotes information
gained by means of observation,
experience, or experiment, as opposed to
theoretical.
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Empirical data are data that are produced by
experiment or observation.
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Biological Perspective
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Biological psychologists are interested in the
relationship between the body and the mind.
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They study the structure of the brain and the central
nervous system, the parts of the brain and their
specific functions, and the links between physical
and emotional reactions to events.
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Biological psychology also focuses on biological
processes such as hunger, thirst, and fatigue.
Explain two key concepts of the Biological perspective.
Describe empirical studies upon which these key concepts
are based.
KEY CONCEPTS OF THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
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Localization of brain functions
Sensation and perception
Motivated behavior (hunger, thirst, sex)
Control of movement
Learning and memory
Emotion
Contributions
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Gender development
Aggression
Abnormality
Memory
Motivation
Emotion
Awareness
Localization of function
BIOLOGICAL
Explain one study related to the localization of function of the
brain. (Examples: Wernicke, Broca, Gazzaniga, and Sperry)
WERNICKE’S AREA
Wernicke's area is named after Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist and
psychiatrist who, in 1874, hypothesized a link between the left posterior
section of the superior temporal gyrus and the reflexive mimicking of words
and their syllables that associated the sensory and motor images of spoken
words.
He did this on the basis of the location of brain injuries that caused aphasia.
Receptive aphasia in which such abilities are preserved is now sometimes
called Wernicke's aphasia. In this condition there is a major impairment of
language comprehension, while speech retains a natural-sounding rhythm
and a relatively normal syntax.
BROCA’S AREA
Patients with Broca's aphasia are individuals who know "what
they want to say, they just cannot get it out." [12]
They are typically able to understand what is being said to
them, but unable to fluently speak.
This is also known as non-fluent aphasia. Other symptoms that
may be present include problems with fluency, articulation,
word-finding, word repetition, and producing and
comprehending complex grammatical sentences, both orally
and in writing.
GAZZANIGA
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In 1961, Gazzaniga graduated from Dartmouth
College. In 1964, he received a Ph.D. in
psychobiology from the California Institute of
Technology, where he worked under the guidance of
Roger Sperry, with primary responsibility for initiating
human split-brain research. In his subsequent work
he has made important advances in our
understanding of functional lateralization in the brain
and how the cerebral hemispheres communicate
with one another.
SPERRY
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Split-brain is a lay term to describe the
result when the corpus callosum connecting
the two hemispheres of the brain is severed
to some degree.
Some of the earliest split-brain research was
carried out by Roger Wolcott Sperry. Results
from this research have led to important
theories on the lateralization of brain
function.
Split Brain
 a condition in which
the two hemispheres
of the brain are
isolated by cutting
the connecting fibers
(mainly those of the
corpus callosum)
between them
WILDER PENFIELD
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Wilder Penfield (1891-1976)
Neurosurgeon specializing in the
surgical treatment of epilepsy
Kept his patients awake so they
could talk to him about what they
were feeling as he stimulated
areas of the brain to locate
seizure activity
Developed a map of the cortex
showing how much space is
taken up by the different regions
of the body.
Using one or more examples, explain the functions
of two hormones in human behavior. (Examples:
adrenaline, testosterone, estrogen)
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Adrenaline is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands during
high stress or exciting situations.
This powerful hormone is part of the human body's acute stress
response system, also called the "fight or flight" response. It
works by stimulating the heart rate, contracting blood vessels,
and dilating air passages, all of which work to increase blood
flow to the muscles and oxygen to the lungs.
Additionally, it is used as a medical treatment for some
potentially life-threatening conditions including anaphylactic
shock. In the US, the medical community largely refers to this
hormone as epinephrine, although the two terms may be used
interchangeably.
Testosterone
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The earliest experimentation with steroids is
credited to John Hunter, a man who in the
1700s put the testosterone hormone from a
rooster into a hen, and observed the hen to
develop male, rooster characteristics.
Berthold’s classic study of domesticated
roosters in 1849 demonstrated that testicular
secretions are necessary for the normal
expression of aggressive behavior.
DABBS
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Social psychologist Jim Dabbs & colleagues
found high testosterone levels in:
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Aggressive boys
Violent criminals
Men and women with criminal records
Military veterans who went AWOL or got into
trouble after their service
Discuss how and why particular research
methods are used at the biological level of
analysis.
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Laboratory experimentation :
Stimulation (ESB)
Giving drugs
Psychosurgery (removing parts of brain,
split brain studies)
Laboratory observation (e.g. sleep)
Correlations:
Twin studies
Adoptive studies
Case studies – accidental injuries
Methods of Investigating the Brain
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Accidental Damage
-Strokes/Tumors
-Head Trauma- Phineas Gage
-Virus- Clive Wearing
Disadvantage: lack of precision, cannot
replicate, non-physical effects may cause
behavior changes.
Methods of Investigating the Brain
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Deliberate Damage
-Ablation/Lesion Studies look at the effect
on:
1. Motivation
2. Aggression
3. Memory- Lashley
4. Consciousness- Sperry (split brain)
Methods of Investigating the Brain
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Stimulation of the Brain
-Electrical Stimulation: microelectrodes to
reveal brain function.
1. Delgado- animal studies where
aggression was studied in monkeys.
2. Penfield- human studies using the cortex
to show locations that cause body
movement.
Discuss the ethical considerations
at the biological level of analysis:
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Any experimental study that creates anxiety, stress, pain or discomfort for
participants • must not be permitted.
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unjustified deception, involuntary participation
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informed before commencing the experimental study
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informed of the aims and objectives
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Participants must be debriefed and given the right to withdraw their own
personal data
With reference to relevant research studies,
to what extent does genetic inheritance
influence behavior?
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Bouchard's longitudinal studies of twins reared apart are worldrenowned.
His research topics have been diverse - ranging from sociology
to human resources, as have the methods he has used: from
large scale quantitative analyses to case-studies of twins
reared apart.
This latter work demonstrated numerous astounding similarities
in identical twins separated at birth and living without
knowledge of the other twin for many decades.
The detailed reports of similarity went a long way to answer
critics of twin studies.
BOUCHARD
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In 1979, Bouchard came across an account of a pair
of twins (Jim Springer and Jim Lewis) who had been
separated from birth and were reunited at age 39.
He found that an identical twin reared away from his
or her co-twin seems to have about an equal chance
of being similar to the co-twin in terms of personality,
interests, and attitudes as one who has been reared
with his or her co-twin.
BOUCHARD
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He found that an identical twin reared away from his or her co-twin
seems to have about an equal chance of being similar to the co-twin in
terms of personality, interests, and attitudes as one who has been reared
with his or her co-twin.
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This leads to the conclusion that the similarities between twins are due to
genes, not environment, since the differences between twins reared
apart must be due totally to the environment.
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Researchers had also studied the prevalence of psychopathology,
substance use, divorce, leadership, and other traits. The relevance of the
studies pertained to the importance of heredity as a determining factor in
shaping our physical appearance, mental acuteness, preferences,
personal characteristics, and personality.
Examine one evolutionary
explanation of behavior.
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Evolutionary psychologists argue that much of human behavior is the output of
psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human
ancestral environments.
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Cross-cultural Consistency. Characteristics that have been demonstrated to be
cross cultural human universals such as smiling, crying, facial expressions are
presumed to be evolved psychological adaptations. Several evolutionary
psychologists have collected massive datasets from cultures around the world
to assess cross-cultural universality.
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Form to Function (reverse-engineering -- or "solution to problem"). Morning
sickness, and associated aversions to certain types of food, during pregnancy
seemed to have the characteristics of an evolved adaptation (complexity and
universality). Margie Profet hypothesized that the function was to avoid the
ingestion of toxins during early pregnancy that could damage fetus
COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Cognitive Perspective Review
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Basic Assumptions
History and culture
Key concepts
Empirical evidence
Limits of evidence
Cognitive Perspective
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Cognitive psychology is the study of memory,
perception, thought, and other mental processes.
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Cognitive psychologists are concerned with people’s
emotions, intelligence, motivations, and problemsolving skills.
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Any subject connected to knowledge, intellect, or the
mind in general can fall into the realm of cognitive
psychology.
Explain how the principles that define
the cognitive level of analysis may be
demonstrated in research.
Schema Theory
• Frederic Bartlett coined the term schema, and carried out
research related on how cultural schemas influence
remembering.
• He found that people had problems remembering a story from
another culture, and that they reconstructed the story to fit in
with their own cultural schemas.
• However, through his research he also demonstrated that
memory is not like a tape recorder but rather that people
remember in terms of meaning ad what makes sense to them.
This also explains why memory is subject distortions,
according to Bartlett, who showed how this principle could be
investigated scientifically.
More…
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Use of the experimental Scientific Method.
Studies on information processing.
Akinson-Shiffrin Model & Baddeley’s Working
Memory Model.
Representative Heuristic- judging based on how well
something matches a proto-type or mental image.
Availability Heuristic- likelihood based on availability
in the memory. Comes to mind more easily we
presume it is common.
Outline the principles that define the cognitive level
of analysis. (Examples: mental representations
guide behavior, mental processes can be
scientifically investigated.)
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Mental Representations: Schemas
Mental Processes: Memory
~Ebbinghaus: effortful processing through rehearsal of non-sense
syllables.
~Stroop: processing speed of words or colors
~Sperling: performed an experiment using a matrix with three
rows of three letters. Participants of the study were asked to
look at the letters, for a brief period of time, and then recall
them immediately afterwards.
Ebbinhaus -Effortful Processing
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We can enhance our memory through rehearsal and repetition. This
was shown by the German researcher Ebbinhaus. This method
often produces durable and accessible memories.
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Ebbinhaus used verbal material that was not familiar by forming a list
of non-sense syllables. He was have the subjects read the list 8
times out loud and then try to recall the items.
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Ebbinhaus would try to recall them the day after. He could recall a
few but were they entirely forgotten?
It took fewer repetitions on the second day to recall the list. This
began the simple beginning principle that “the amount remembered
depends on the amount of time spent learning”.
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George Sperling
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Sperling, through several experiments, was able to prove his
hypothesis that human beings store a perfect image of the visual world
for a brief moment, before it is discarded from memory.
Sperling performed an experiment using a matrix with three rows of
three letters. Participants of the study were asked to look at the letters,
for a brief period of time, and then recall them immediately afterwards.
If you present people with randomly scattered letters and numbers,
and ask people to recall the letters (or numbers), which is a partial
report task, people perform very poorly.
This is because the category “number” vs. the category “letter” is
semantic in nature. The fact that people have a difficult time recalling
that information suggests that SM is veridical and sensory (i.e., no
meaning).
•The effect is named after John Ridley Stroop who first
published the effect in English in 1935.
•The effect had previously been published in 1929, but
only in German.
•The original paper has been one of the most cited papers
in the history of experimental psychology, leading to over
700 replications.
Evaluate schema theory with reference
to research studies.
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Explain what schemas are and what they are thought to do (influence our
behavior).
Then use relevant research studies like Bartlett's war of ghosts which
showed that schemas influence the reproduction of stories.
Schemas can influence different stages of memory (encoding, retrieval)
like Anderson & Pichert (1978). They found that schemas affect both
encoding and retrieval.
Evaluate schema theory. It does a good job of explaining how people
categorize information and helps explain memory distortion (Bartlett's
war of ghosts, eyewitness testimony). Schemas are linked to stereotypes
which have been invaluable at explaining prejudice. Now for the cons.
We don't know how schemas are acquired nor do we know how they
precisely influence behavior. Cohen (1993) claimed that schemas are too
vague as a concept to be useful. We also don't know where schemas
exist in the brain.
Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process (for
example, memory, perception, language, decision-making)
with reference to research studies.
Memory:
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The Atkinson-Shiffrin classics three-stage model of memory
suggests that we:
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register fleeting sensory memories.
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processed into on-screen short term memories and
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a small fraction of those are encoded into long term memory.
Working Memory Model
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The working memory model can be tested
using dual-task experiments (the research) to
show that the different aspects of working
memory exist (which relates to the principle
that mental processes can be studied
scientifically).
Working Memory (WM)
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Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
Input
Central
Executive
Working
Memory
Phonological
Loop
Visuospatial
Sketchpad
Long Term Memory or
Short Term Memory
42
Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive
process (for example, Alzheimer’s disease, brain
damage, sleep deprivation).
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Clive Wearing- anterograde and retrograde amnesia
from brain infection, implicit memory not affected.
HM Case- tissue from temporal lobe and
hippocampus removed, caused anterograde
amnesia.
With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one
cognitive process reliable (for example, reconstructive memory,
perception/visual illusions, decision-making/heuristics)?
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Loftus and Palmer
 People watched a video of a car accident
 Asked: ‘How fast were the cars going when they
____ each other?’
Misinformation Effect: people thought the cars were going at a
higher speed depending on the type of words used in the
description. Hit, Smashed
You may also discuss Ebbinghaus, retrieval cues, information
processing and priming
Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive
process (for example, state-dependent
memory, flashbulb memory, affective filters).
Brown and Kulik
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Flashbulb memories typically are remarkably vivid and seemingly permanent
memories.
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These memories are typically of highly emotional and personal events in
one's life.
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Flashbulb memories can also be of personal circumstances during an event
that did not affect one personally, such as a leader's assassination or a
devastating airline crash.
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Some theorists have suggested that a certain flashbulb mechanism is
responsible for capturing such events and storing them in memory for an
indefinite period of time, yet others suggest that these memories are not
encoded any differently than others.
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What makes flashbulb memories different, they argue, is that they are much
more often rehearsed. Personal reactions to such events are usually brought
up in conversation often, and so they are remembered more often.
More…
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State Dependent Memory: learned in one state remembered in
that same state. It could be environmental, sensory, or
emotional.
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Affective Filters: ability to block information so that you do not
have and overload of information.
Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process
(for example, education, carpentered-world hypothesis, effect
of video games on attention
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One of the more popular explanations is
the so-called "carpentered world"
hypothesis. The idea is that in Western
civilization, we are used to seeing lots of
ruler-straight lines due to the dominating
style of design and architecture - we live
in a carpentered world of square houses,
rectangular doors etc. Thus when a
Westerner sees Müller-Lyer-type lines,
the brain unconsciously interprets them as
if they were the inside or the outside of a
rectangular walled building.
Video Games and Attention Span
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Researchers found that those who used electronic technology
at bedtime (texting, game playing, email, surfing, etc.) also
experienced sleep-related problems such as excessive
movements, leg pain and insomnia, and also had a "high rate of
daytime problems, which can include attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], anxiety, depression, and
learning difficulties.” Dr. Peter Polos
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Study based on questionnaire.
Examine one interaction between cognition and
physiology in terms of behavior. Examples:
agnosia, anagosia, prosopagnosia, amnesia
Amnesia: study of hippocampus and how it
malfunctions and disrupts memory.
Prosopagnosia- ability to associate names with
faces is damaged.
Agnosia- loss of ability to recognize objects.
Anasognosia- unaware of the disability.
Damage to the cerebellum can cause these
malfunctions.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social Psychology
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Prejudice and Discrimination
Definitions of prejudice and discrimination
The origins of prejudice
The link between prejudice and
discrimination
Strategies for reducing prejudice
Evaluation of attempts to reduce prejudice
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at
the socio-cultural level of analysis (for example,
participant/naturalistic observation, interviews, case
studies).
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Participant/Naturalist Observation- to observe in the natural
environment otherwise the study may become irrelevant.
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Milgram: Look into the Sky.
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Interviews: a way to study individuals and get insight on their
perspectives. Conversation analysis.
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Case Studies: one person in depth may discover the truth to us
all for example: The Kitty Genovese Case.
Discuss ethical considerations related to research
studies at the socio-cultural level of analysis.
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Overt/ Covert Methods: deception can be used and could be
harmful.
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Asch Experiment and Milgram Experiment.
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Harm to participants: Zimbardo and Stanford Prison
Experiment.
Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in
explaining behavior.
Fritz Heider
~Situational- explanation of behavior using outside factors.
~Dispositional- explanation of characteristics due to internal
factors.
Discuss two errors in attributions (for example, fundamental
attribution error, illusory correlation, self-serving bias).
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Fundamental Attribution Error: underestimating the impact of
the situation and overestimating the personal disposition.
Illusory Correlation- seeing a relationship in data when
explaining superstitions- cold/wet causes colds
Self-Serving bias- perceive oneself favorably. Accept
responsibility for good deeds.
Good grades- themselves
bad grades- teacher’s fault
Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to relevant
studies.
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How people develop a sense of membership and belonging to a
group. Seek out group membership for self esteem.
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Categorization of people
Personal identity, role, perception
Ingroup/outgroup
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Stanford Prison Experiment
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Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on
behavior.
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Use schemas to process information, selectively filter
information leave a lot of information out.
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People naturally classify.
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Stereotypes happen almost in any parts of the world and are
illustrated frequently in movies or jokes. It is “a social
perception of an individual in terms of group membership or
physical attributes” (Crane and Jette). The image we apply to a
certain social group is “often attributed to all members of the
group” (Crane and Jette) and because of this, it is a type of
social categorization.
Explain social learning theory, making reference to
two relevant studies.
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Social Learning Theory: is a perspective that states that people
learn within a social context. It is facilitated through such concepts as
modeling and observational learning
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Bandura- 1961 bobo doll experiment. Those exposed to the
aggressive model were more likely to be aggressive.
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1. Attention – in order for an individual to learn something, they must pay
attention to the features of the modeled behavior.
2. Retention – humans need to be able to remember details of the behavior in
order to learn and later reproduce the behavior.
3. Reproduction – in reproducing a behavior, an individual must organize his or
her responses in accordance with the model behavior. This ability can improve
with practice.
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Meltzoff- children will imitate behavior on television.
Discuss the use of compliance techniques (for example,
lowballing, foot-in-the-door, reciprocity).
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Foot in the Door- People who have complied with a smaller
request may agree to a larger request that goes against their
values.
Milgram
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Lowballing: telling the appealing part to get people to agree and then
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tell them the rest.
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Reciprocity Norm:
Evaluate research on conformity to group norms.
Asch Experiment:
 Normative Influence: desire for approval
 Social Influence: willingness to accept others opinions
Discuss factors influencing conformity (for example culture,
groupthink, risky shift, minority influence.
Risky Shift: make decisions about risk while in a group.
Groupthink: desire for harmony overrides alternatives in decision
making.
Minority Influence: people will respond to the opinion of the minority
because they are the only one with that perspective. It carries
more weight.
Define the terms “culture” and “cultural norms”.
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Culture: behaviors, ideas, attitudes, shared by a large group.
Norm: understood rule of accepted behavior.
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Examples:
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Personal Space
Gestures
Concept of Time
Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior (for
example, individualism/collectivism, power distance,
uncertainty avoidance, masculinity/femininity).
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Individualism: giving priority to one’s own goals over the group
goals, identity based on personal attributes.
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Collectivism: giving priority to the groups goals based on the
extended family.
Using one or more examples, explain “emic” and “etic”
concepts.
 Emic: behavior from within the culture
 Etic: behavior from an observer that is considered culturally
neutral.
How do biological, cognitive, and socio-cultural
perspectives influence human relationships?
Distinguish between altruism and prosocial
behavior
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Pro-social behavior benefits others or has
positive social consequences (Staub, 1978)
Helping behavior intentionally helps or
benefits others in the spirit of making a
difference
Altruistic behavior is helping someone else
without reward and can even be at some
cost to yourself
Contrast two theories explaining altruism in
humans
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Negative-state relief model (Schaller and Cialdini, 1988) - motivated to
reduce distress experienced by watching others in awful situations
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Empathy-altruism model (Batson et al., 1981) - we experience either
-personal distress - anxiety or fear which motivates us to help
egoistically to relieve our fear or anxiety
-empathetic concern - sympathy or compassion which
motivates us to help where the goal is relieving the person's
suffering (not your own fear or anxiety)