Transcript Memory
Memory The Memory Process Three step process…. 1. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. 2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. 3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage. Three Box Model of Memory Haptic memory – tactile sensations (1.3 secs) Info-Processing • Brain processes many things at different levels at the same time • Automatic (not conscious) – Remembering space, time, frequency, well-learned info – i.e. driving slowly down a street (automatic) while looking for an address (conscious) • Effortful (conscious) – Rehearsal/repetition – Must consciously attend to/ – think about Ebbinghaus Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 = RELEARNING EFFECT Spacing Effect • DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!! • Distributed practice is better than massed practice for enhanced memory • Overlearning = continuing to rehearse even after learned does enhance later memory Encoding Information • Primacy Effect – Items @ beginning of list • Recency Effect – Items @ end of list = Serial Positioning Effect (more likely to remember items at the beginning & end of list (less likely to remember items in middle of list) The ways we can encode… • Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. • Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. • Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning (such as the meaning of words). Encoding – Techniques for Memory Imagery (technique for visual encoding) mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices Encoding Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units like horizontal organization--1776149218121941 often occurs automatically use of acronyms HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream Encoding: Chunking Organized information is more easily recalled in groups Peg-Word System • • • • • One is a bun Two is a shoe Three is a tree Four is a door Five is a hive • • • • • Six is sticks Seven is heaven Eight is a gate Nine is swine Ten is a hen Method of Loci – Uses your cognitive map!! Method of Loci – Uses your cognitive map!! • • • • • Honey Dog food Sugar Oranges Ice cream • • • • • Peanut butter Bread Pork chops Milk Potato chips Three Box Model of Memory Haptic memory – tactile sensations (1.3 secs) Storage: Sensory Memory • Iconic memory – Brief sensory memory of images (tenths of a second) • Echoic memory – Brief sensory memory of sounds (2-4 secs) • Haptic memory – Memory for touch/tactile sensations Storage: Short-Term (STM)/ Working Memory Percentage 90 who recalled consonants 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 3 6 9 12 15 • Limited duration & capacity • Magical number (7+/2 items) • Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically. • We recall digits better than letters. 18 Time in seconds between presentation of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) Storage: Long-Term Memory (LTM) How does storage work? Engrams (physical traces of memory) Karl Lashley (1950) Memories must be stored throughout the brain (no single place) Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation Biological evidence of memory increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation Retrospective Memory Prospective Memory Memory of the past (i.e. remembering your first day of school, remembering the Homecoming dance, etc.) Memory for things that will happen in the future (i.e. I have a dentist appt. tomorrow at 3, next week is my sister’s birthday, etc.) Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositionsclassical and operant conditioning effects Storage: Long-Term Memory (LTM) Strong emotions make for stronger memories = FLASHBULB MEMORIES • Mood-dependent memory we remember info in same mood as when it was encoded/learned • State-dependent memory remember when in same conscious state as learned/ rehearsed Retrieval: Context Effects/ContextDependent Memory • Godden and Baddeley (1975) Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ Land/ land water Different contexts for hearing and recall Water/ Land/ water land Same contexts for hearing and recall Retrieval • Recall v. Recognition tasks • Priming - activation of unconscious associations in memory (déjà vu) • Mood-dependent memory we remember info in same mood as when it was encoded/learned • State-dependent memory remember when in same conscious state as learned/rehearsed Retrieval: Context Effects • Godden and Baddeley (1975) Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ Land/ land water Different contexts for hearing and recall Water/ Land/ water land Same contexts for hearing and recall Why Do We Forget? • The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill. What is the on the back of a $10 bill? $5 bill? $1 bill? • Whose faces are on Mt. Rushmore? • What letters accompany the number 4 on a phone? • What is the Statue of Liberty holding in her left hand? • How many sides are there on a #2 pencil? Forgetting: Encoding Failure Ebbinghaus Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 If not rehearsed, forgetting occurs rapidly, but then levels off Forgetting: Encoding Failure • Info never gets to LTM Attention External events Short- Encoding LongSensory term term memory Encoding memory memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting Forgetting: Storage Decay Percentage of list retained when relearning 60 Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-initially rapid, then levels off with time 50 40 30 20 10 0 12345 10 15 20 25 Time in days since learning list 30 Forgetting: Storage Decay The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school Percentage of 100% original 90 vocabulary 80 retained Retention drops, 70 then levels off 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course Forgetting: Retrieval Failure Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory Attention External events Sensory memory Encoding Encoding Short-term Long-term memory Retrieval memory Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Forgetting: Interference • Proactive (forward-acting) interference old info disrupts memory of new info • Retroactive (backward-acting) interference new info disrupts memory of old info Forgetting- Interference Motivated Forgetting (retrieval failure) people unknowingly revise memories Repression defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories Amnesia: Disruption of explicit memories • Infantile amnesia: difficult to remember vivid memories from before ages 2-3 • Dissociative amnesia: inability to remember info due to psychological trauma Memory Construction Elizabeth Loftus We filter information and fill in missing pieces Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event Memory Construction Depiction of actual accident Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction References Kaplan, H. Memory (PPT file). Retrieved from AP Psychology Commune Web Site: http://www.appsychology.com Myers, D.G. (2011). Myers’ psychology for AP. Holland, MI: Worth Publishers.