Transcript Chapter 7
CHAPTER 7 - MEMORY I. STAGES OF MEMORY memory- is an active system that receives, stores, organizes, alters, and recovers information 1. Information is first encoded (changed into a usable form) 2. Next it is stored (held in the system) 3. Finally, memories are retrieved (taken out of storage) to be useful to be stored for a long time, information must pass through sensory memory, short-term memory, and longterm memory A. SENSORY MEMORY 1. iconic memories – visual sensory images-typically last for about one-half second 2. when you hear information, sensory memory stores it as an echoic memory for up to 2 seconds B. SHORT-TERM MEMORY selective attention controls what information moves on to short-term memory usually stored phonetically briefly stores small amounts of information it is very sensitive to interruption or interference 1. Working Memory-briefly holds the information we need when we are thinking and solving problems C. LONG-TERM MEMORY information that is important or meaningful is transferred to long-term memory stored on the basis of meaning, not sound if you can link information currently in STM to knowledge already stored in LTM, it gains meaning II. SHORT TERM MEMORY limited to the “magic number” 7 A. Chunking 1. information chunks-bits of information grouped into larger units a. it recodes (reorganizes) information into units that are already in LTM B. REHEARSING INFORMATION 1. Maintenance rehearsal, rehearsing information allows you to hear it many times, not just once 2. rote learning-learning by simple repetition 3. elaborative processing- makes information more meaningful; links new information to memories that are already in LTM III. LONG-TERM MEMORY A. Permanence memory experts now believe that long-term memories are only relatively permanent B. Elaborating False Memories 1. false memory – new information is included in memories and revised gaps in memory may be filled in by logic, guessing, or new information it is possible to have memories for things that never happened our memories are colored by emotions, judgments, and quirks of personality what we remember depends on what we pay attention to, what we regard as meaningful or important, what we feel strongly about C. ORGANIZING MEMORIES LTM stores huge amounts of information during a lifetime information may be arranged according to rules, images, categories, symbols, similarity, formal meaning or personal meaning 1. REDINTEGRATION networks of associated memories may also help explain a common experience can also be touched off by distinctive odors of the past D. TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY 1. Procedural memory –skills- includes basic conditioned responses and learned actions, such as those involved in typing, driving or swinging a golf club can be expressed only as actions 2. Declarative memory –facts- stores specific factual information a. Semantic Memory-the names of objects, the days of the week or months of the year, simple math skills, the seasons, words and language, and other general facts b. Episodic Memory-an autobiographical record of personal experiences; stores life events the what, when, and where of our lives IV. MEASURING MEMORY – PARTIAL MEMORIES ARE COMMON tip of the tongue state – the feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable de ja vu is the illusion that you have already experienced a new situation that you are actually seeing for the first time A. RECALLING INFORMATION recall- the direct retrieval of facts or information B. Recognizing Information recognition memory-previously learned material is correctly identified C. Relearning Information measured by a savings score (the amount of time you saved when relearning information) D. Implicit and Explicit Memories implicit memories lies outside awareness; we are not aware that a memory exists explicit memories are past experiences that are consciously brought to mind V. FORGETTING most forgetting tends to occur immediately after memorization. A. When Encoding Fails we forget because of encoding failure- a memory was never formed in the first place B. When Memory Storage Fails memory decay appears to be a factor in the loss of sensory memory, STM 1. Disuse- memories not retrieved and used or rehearsed become weaker over time C. When Retrieval Fails even if memories are available (stored), you will have to be able to access them (locate) in order to remember 1. Cue-Dependent Forgetting a. retrieval may fail because memory cues are missing when the time comes to retrieve info 2. State-Dependent Learning-the bodily state that exists during learning can be a strong retrieval cue for later memory 3. Interference- new learning can interfere with the ability to retrieve previous learning a. retroactive interference-the tendency for new learning to inhibit retrieval of old learning b. proactive interference-when prior learning inhibits recall of later learning 4. Transfer of Training a. positive transfer-mastery of one task aids mastery of a second task b. negative transfer-skills developed in one situation conflict with those required to master a new task 5. Repression and Suppression of Memories repression-motivated forgetting; painful, threatening, or embarrassing memories are held out of consciousness suppression-an active, conscious attempt to put something out of mind VI. MEMORY AND THE BRAIN a head injury may cause a gap in memories preceding an accident- retrograde amnesia; anterograde amnesia involves forgetting events that follow an injury or trauma A. Memory, Stress and Emotion 1. flashbulb memory-an especially vivid image that seems to be frozen in memory at times of personal tragedy, accident, or other emotionally significant events VII. EXCEPTIONAL MEMORY mental images (pictures) – many memories are stored as mental images A. Eidetic imagery-when a person has visual images clear enough to be scanned or retained for at least 30 seconds VIII. IMPROVING MEMORY A. Encoding Strategies 1. Elaborative Processing -Rehearsal-mentally review as you read 2. Selection-selective marking in your texts; marginal notes to summarize ideas 3. Organization-organizing notes 4. Whole vs. Part Learning-it is better to practice whole packages of info rather than smaller parts 5. Serial Position-give extra practice to the middle of a list, poem, speech 6. Cues-stimuli that aid retrieval 7. Overlearning 8. Spaced Practice-short study sessions with brief rest periods B. RETRIEVAL STRATEGIES 1. Recitation-learning proceeds best when feedback or knowledge of results allows you to check your progress 2. Review 3. Extend How Long You Remember-gradually lengthen the amount of time that passes before you test yourself again 4. Sleep and Memory-sleeping after study reduces interference 5. Hunger and Memory-people who are hungry almost always score lower on memory tests.