Transcript LEARNING - BTHS 201

WHAT IS LEARNING?
HOW DO WE LEARN?
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
OPERANT CONDITIONING
SOCIAL LEARNING
COGNITIVE LEARNING
WHAT IS LEARNING?
 LEARNING happens when any experience
brings about a relatively permanent change in
behavior
 New neural connections
 Conditioned = learned
 Behaviorism
 central role in behavioral, thought, emotional
patterns
 Memory & learning are 2 diff’t things!
 4 MAIN WAYS IN WHICH WE LEARN
LEARNING STYLES
 Favor a way of interacting w/, taking in, &
processing stimuli
 More likely to learn when take in & work w/
info in EVERY way!
 Audio - hearing
 Visual – seeing
 Tactile/kinesthetic – doing (mvmt)
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
=
LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION
 Classical Conditioning
 old response becomes attached to a new stimulus
(TIMING IS KEY!!!)
 Association
 mental connection btw 2 ‘things’
 thought of 1 automatically brings up other
 Stimulus
 anything that provokes a response
 Response
 the rxn to a stimulus
PRINCIPLES OF CC
• NEUTRAL STIMULUS – doesn’t cause a rxn
• UCS = stimulus that elicits a natural/
unlearned response
• UCR = unlearned/natural rxn to a stimulus
• CS = originally neutral stimulus that comes
to elicit a learned response
• CR = the learned rxn that the CS elicits
 EXTINCTION – disappearance of the CR b/c
removal of the reinforcement
 CR ‘dies out’
 SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY – CR reappears
when the CS is presented again after
extinction
 HABITUATED - the stimuli no longer
provokes a rxn
 GENERALIZATION - same rxn to similar
stimuli
 DISCRIMINATION - respond diff’t to diff’t
stimuli
PAVLOV & HIS DOGS
 1st identified by Ivan Pavlov in the early
1900s when conducting digestive process
research on dogs
 His research kept getting disrupted b/c the
dogs would salivate before they saw the food
 Dogs salivated just when they heard the cart
in the hall or when they saw the person who
usually fed them
 What causes the dogs to salivate when
there’s not meat present?
• Pavlov set up an experiment! Can dogs learn to
produce a certain response when the ‘natural’
stimulus isn’t present?
• Dogs naturally salivate when they see meat.
Meat is the UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS.
– Not taught to salivate when they see meat
• Pavlov rang a bell. This was the NEUTRAL
STIMULUS
– Dogs don’t naturally salivate when they hear a
bell
• Pavlov rang a bell & then gave the dogs meat.
They salivated! The pairing of the bell (NS) &
getting meat (UCS) was repeated several times.
 Eventually, Pavlov just rang the bell when he
had no meat. Now, the bell itself was enough to
make the dogs salivate!
 The bell was the CONDITIONED STIMULUS
 The previous neutral bell now has meaning…
an association was made!
 When they salivated b/c of the bell, this was a
CONDITIONED RESPONSE
 Dogs salivated when there’s no food
 They learned that the sound of the bell meant
that they were going to be given meat!
WATSON, LITTLE ALBERT, &
THE WHITE RAT
 Babies have 3 nat’l emotional responses to
stimuli - fear, rage, & love
 Little Albert was taught to fear white rats…
he had no natural fear of them. But he did
have a natural fear of loud banging. When
the white rat & the loud banging was paired
together, he learned to fear both.
 He was also fearful of all white furry things
(cotton balls, white bath towels, kittens,
etc). He had the same response w/ similar
objects.
NS - rat
UCS – loud bang
UCR - crying
CS – rat
CR – crying
Assoc?
TASTE AVERSIONS
 Assoc. = nausea +
certain food
 Evolutionary
PHOBIAS
 Irrational,
intense,
persistent fear
of an object or
situation
 Danger of
object or
situation is
exaggerated
 Causes a biological
response
 Range of intensity
 3 types
 Situations
 Agoraphobia
 Specific
PTSD
 Undergo trauma
 Respond to similar
stimuli once out of
the threatening
situation
 Emotional arousal,
fight-or-flight rxn,
dreams
HELPING PEOPLE
 get rid of fearful/unwanted responses to
stimuli?
 -- rxn  + rxn
 SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION – use a
sequence of events to gradually reduce the
unwanted response
 COUNTERCONDITIONING – replacing
the negative response with the expectation
of pleasure
OPERANT CONDITIONING
LEARNING BY CONSEQUENCES
 A CERTAIN BEHAVIOR IS REINFORCED
(will do it again) OR PUNISHED (won’t do
it).
 We don’t just react to our environ, we actively
choose behavior in order to avoid
punishment & gain pleasure
 analyze what happens when we act a certain
way
 manipulate behavior to get pleasure & avoid
punishment/pain.
HOW DOES THIS WORK?
 Change frequency of a behavior
 person acts first, then learns whether that’s
a wanted or unwanted behavior based on
the rxn of others
 behavior & its consequences.
 Wanted behavior is reinforced
 unwanted behavior is ignored or punished
REINFORCEMENT
 process of applying a reinforcer (pleasant
stimulus) to encourage a behavior
 i.e. giving praise, cookie, grades
 Increases behavior
 Behavior that is
reinforced (+ or -)
is more likely to
be repeated
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
 BEHAVIOR  PRESENT A PLEASANT
STIMULUS  BEHAVIOR ENCOURAGED
 Intrinsic vs. extrinsic reward
 Something that is desired
 Ex. candy, feeling of accomplishment, sticker,
praise,
• NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
• BEHAVIOR  REMOVAL OF
AN UNPLEASANT STIMULUS
ENCOURAGES
BEHAVIOR
• Something negative,
is removed after the
desired behavior occurs
• Ex. Seat belt alarm, leaving a
movie if it’s bad, removing a
rock in shoe, turning down
volume if too loud, etc.
PUNISHMENT
 -- consequence discourages the behavior
frequency of behavior
 opposite of + & -- reinforcement
 Behavior that is punished is less likely to be
repeated
 Present an unpleasant
stimulus
 Remove a pleasant
stimulus

EFFECTIVE CONSEQUENCES
 Ask what they did wrong (or right)
 Take ownership
 Talk about why punishment is happening…
specify the behavior & why it’s wrong
 prevents confusion, fear, rage, etc…
 Give behavior options
 Prevents sneaking around behavior
 Use ‘I’ or ‘help’ language
 Switch up punishers & reinforcers
 Prevents habituation
 Identify & reinforce acceptable behaviors
 Make sure punishment fits the crime… & don’t
change your mind
 Model appropriate behavior
 COMBO OF PUNISHMENT &
REINFORCEMENT!
Learning Disabilities
 Normal or IQ but brain’s ability to receive
& process info is affected
 Lasts a lifetime
 Dyscalculia
 Dyslexia
 Dysgraphia
 Aud. Processing
 Comorbid w/
ADD or ADHD
SOCIAL LEARNING
LEARNING BY OBSERVING,
MODELING, & IMITATING
 SOCIAL LEARNING
 Alter own behavior by observing &
imitating the behavior of others
 We are able to analyze events & make
decisions before responding or acting
 can learn w/o it ever happening to us
HOW DOES IT WORK?
 @ least 2 ppl
 watching others &
deciding what to
imitate/model
 We want to feel a
connection &
approval by other
ppl
BOBO DOLLS
 Albert Bandura thought earlier explanations
of learning were oversimplified & robotic
 Some learning can occur by exposure &
imitation alone.
 Do kids who observe
aggressive adult models
become aggressive
themselves?
Scenario #1
Scenario # 2
Scenario # 3
Scenario # 4
SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY
 WHEN WE BECOME THE LABEL!!
 People have a tendency to act in a way that
is similar to the expectations of others…
high or low!
 We will look for exs. in our lives that
confirm the label
 STEREOTYPES!!!
 Are labels a good or bad thing?
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
 Systematic application of learning principles
to change people’s patterns of thoughts,
actions, & feelings
 1) Overcome -- feelings & thoughts (CC)
 2) Reform prob. behaviors (Op Cond.)
 3) Teach & model desired behaviors (Soc)
COGNITIVE LEARNING
LEARNING THROUGH
ABSTRACT THINKING &
PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE
 Focus on how complex knowledge is
obtained, processed, organized, & used
(higher thinking processes)
 We can learn by just being exposed to
something
 Role of motivation
LATENT LEARNING
 Learning that occurs but isn’t exhibited
until there’s a reason or incentive to do it
 Adapt through experience
 Difference btw learning how to do
something & actually
doing it.
 Aware (?)
 Cognitive Map: form mental images of
where we’re located in the environ; dev.
naturally through
experience
 mental picture
 G(1) rats in a maze for
1 hour. G(2) rats
didn’t explore @ all
 Food was placed @
the end of the maze.
 Which G found it the fastest?
INSIGHT
 Analyze the problem as
a whole
 recognize previously
unseen relationships
 Moments when…
 it just ‘clicks’ & you
‘just know’ what to do
KOHLER &
THE
CHIMPS
WHAT’S MEMORY?
 Ability to input, store, retain, & retrieve info
 Selective: pay attn to, think about, & store!!!
 3 STAGES OF MEMORY
 filter, organize, & store info
 Each stage of memory meets difft needs
 SENSORY MEMORY
 Holds exact replica of each sensory
experience for ¼ of a second
 Subconscious: Is it worth paying attn to?
 No = disappears forever; not aware of it
 Yes = transferred to working memory
 WORKING/SHORT-TERM MEMORY
 Everything you’re conscious of; lasts 20
sec. & holds 10 ‘items’
 WORKING (WM) or
SHORT TERM
MEMORY (STM)
 20 seconds & hold up
to 10 itemS
 Anything in your
conscious mind
LONG TERM MEMORY
 vast storage w/ no limits
 Memories that make it here last FOREVER
* When info is put into LTM, chemical and
neural changes occur in the brain –
making it more permanent *
 MEMORIES/INFO STORED IN LTM ARE
USELESS UNLESS THEY CAN BE
RETRIEVED!
TYPES OF MEMORIES
 IMPLICIT
vs.
Info that unconsciously enters &
affects behaviors, thoughts, &
emotions
 DECLARATIVE
EXPLICIT
Conscious & intentional
recall of info
vs.
factual info
PROCEDURAL
how to do things
EPISODIC
SEMANTIC
Personal facts
& experiences
General facts
(memorization)
YOUR INCREDIBLE FILING SYSTEM!
memories stored in an
organized way that help us
make sense of what we know
& the world around us.
 systematically make connections among certain
memories & info… called a SCHEMA
 Your understanding of something…
 framework used to make sense of the world; it’s
how all that stuff fits in your head.
 make connections among info. & help to
‘block’ incorrect connections from forming.
 quickly recall & use information.
 New info:
 1) alter (attach to old info)
 2) reject
 Confusion occurs when what we see or
hear something that doesn’t ‘match’ our
existing schema.
WHAT EFFECTS WHAT WE
REMEMBER?
 emotional state
 Intense/excitable
 Usage
 Maintain neural
connections
 biological factors
 activates chemicals
 Sleep deprivation,
 meaningful
hunger, illness
 More meaningful,
 sensory experience
the easier it is to
 More senses involved =
remember
more likely to
remember
 pay attn
10%
WE
REMEMBER
of what we READ
20% of what we HEAR
30% of what we SEE
50% of what we SEE & HEAR
70% of what we DISCUSS
80% of what we EXPERIENCE (do)
95% of what we TEACH OTHERS
Accuracy of Memory
 BASED ON OUR PERCEPTION!!!!
 INACCURATE MEMORY
 ‘fill in the gaps’ of memory record by
making up what is missing
 Adopt other ppl’s memories
 RECALL
 Reconstruct previously learned info
 RECOGNITION
 Relies directly on experience – more
accurate
WHICH FACES DO YOU RECOGNIZE?
DISORDERS
 ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
 can’t form new lasting memories after brain
trauma; memory span only lasts seconds or
minutes
 RETROGRADE AMNESIA
 inability to recall past memories; but can form
new lasting memories after brain trauma
 LACUNAR AMNESIA
 loss of memory of a specific traumatic event;
creates a ‘gap’ in the memory record
 REPRESSED MEMORY
 A certain memory is tied to trauma &
unavailable for recall; psych. damaging if
remembered
 MEMORY DISTRUST SYNDROME
 someone is unable to trust his/her own
memory; constant confusion about the major
aspects of many memories
 BLACKOUT PHENOMENON
 excessive alcohol consumption; stress; extreme
emotion; creates ‘gap’ in memory record
 INFANT AMNESIA
 lack of memories from
the 1st few years of life
 Why?
 trauma (repressed)
◦ These memories are
nonverbal
◦ Hippocampus isn’t
mature
◦ Babies don’t have
sense of ‘self’
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
 progressive, terminal, no cure; break-down
of memories
 Cause? – deposits of protein inside &
between neurons: block ability of neurons
to communicate
 15% of ppl develop
Alzheimer’s by the
time they’re 75
ALZHEIMER’S
BRAINS
VS.
NORMAL BRAINS
DEMENTIA SYNDROME
 Irreversible decline of mental functions
◦ thinking, memory, logic, & reasoning:
severely interferes w/ daily functioning.
 changes in personality, mood, and behavior;
false memories, absent memories
 Cause? – disease, age, stroke, head injury,
substance abuse, infection, fluid in the
brain
 ½ of ppl 80+ have dementia
THINGS YOU CAN DO TO IMPROVE
YOUR MEMORY
 A good memory depends on a healthy brain.
Follow good health practices – exercise,
nutrition, sleep, stress
 Pay close attn, to what you really want to
remember. It seems too much of the time
we go through life on ‘auto pilot’ or ‘cruise
control’!
 Rehearsal is necessary. Repeat info. you
need to remember in your head at least 3
times. Practice makes a memory closer to
perfect!
 Minimize distractions – minimize noise &
mental distractions
 Use imagery & visualization techniques.
Memory tends to be very vivid. As you learn
info, try to visualize along with words.
 Mnemonic devices. Rhymes or acronyms
 Relate info. to what you already know
 Expose yourself to new experiences
 Read & learn to keep your brain active!
 Keep yourself organized! Don’t
unrealistically expect yourself to
remember every due date, appt.,
schedule, & things to do – it’s
impossible!  Use an agenda book! Keep
a file-folder system for important papers
(i.e. insurance, receipts, bank statements,
medical, school, etc.) for easy retrieval