Transcript Chapters 9 and 10 Test Review - DeForest Area School District

Unit VII Test Review
Memory, Thinking and Language
How we remember
StorageRetaining Information, 319-322
• Sensory Memory
– the immediate, initial recording of sensory
information in the memory system
• Iconic Memory
– a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
– a photographic or picture image memory lasting no
more that a few tenths of a second
– Registration of exact representation of a scene
• Echoic Memory
– momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Effortful Processing, 321
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Committing novel
information to memory
requires effort just like
learning a concept from a
textbook. Such processing
leads to durable and
accessible memories.
StorageShort Term Memory, 319
• Short Term Memory
– limited in duration and
capacity
– “magical” number 7+/-2
Long-Term Memory, 319
Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on capacity
range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of
information (Landauer, 1986).
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.
Did you experience Déjà vu?
349
• The feeling of experiencing a previous
situation (thinking one word was in the list
that really wasn’t)
• Your sensory register gets activated during
the activity, but because you never enter
the information in your long term memory
you have this feeling but can’t quite
remember about it. Page 319
Craig and Tulvig experiment on
processing words: results
Semantic encoding (by word meaning) resulted in
the best recognition
Long term potentiation 333
• Gary Lynch term:
• The prolonged strengthening of potential
neural firing which provides the neural
basis for memory and learning
• Synaptic changes that promote memory
formation
Types of encoding
• Semantic Encoding
–encoding of meaning
–including meaning of words
• Acoustic Encoding
–encoding of sound
–especially sound of words
• Visual Encoding
–encoding of picture images
Herman Ebbinghaus
• Was to study of
memory as Pavlov
was to conditioning
• Showed we could
boost memory by
rehearsal
• Retention curve: more
practice, fewer time
needed to relearn
• Forgetting curve: we
forget a lot then it
levels off
allpsych.com/biographies/ ebbinghaus.html
allpsych.com/biographies/ ebbinghaus.html
Hippocampus, 330
Helps to encode
memories, and
then helps to find
them when you
want to remember
something.
• Since it’s one of
the last brain
areas to mature it
causes infantile
amnesia
Forgetting Curve
http://www.awa.com/norton/figures/fig0709.gif
Spacing Effect, 355
Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better
than practicing all at once. Robert Frost’s poem
could be memorized with fair ease if spread over
time.
ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHT
Robert Frost
I have been one acquainted with the night.
I have walked out in rain — and back in rain.
I have outwalked the furthest city light.
……
Retrieval- Getting
Information Out, 334
• Recall
– the ability to retrieve info learned
earlier and not in conscious
awareness-like fill in the blank test
• Recognition
– the ability to identify previously
learned items-like on a multiple
choice test
Retrieval, 335
• Relearning
– amount of time saved when
relearning previously learned
information
• Priming
– activation, often unconsciously,
of particular associations in
memory
Retrieval Cues, 373-4
• Deja Vu- (French) already seen
– cues from the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
– "I've experienced this before"
• Mood Congruent Memory
– tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with
one’s current mood
– memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues
– State Dependent Memory
• what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same
state
Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in
aiding memory.
1. Method of Loci
2. Link Method
Method of Loci
List of Items
Imagined Locations
Charcoal
Pens
Bed Sheets
Hammer
.
.
.
Rug
Backyard
Study
Bedroom
Garage
.
.
.
Living Room
Testing effect, 324
• Henry Roedinger: repeated self-testing
raises summative test scores.
Encoding
• Chunking
– organizing items into familiar, manageable
units
• like horizontal organization- 1776149218121941
– often occurs automatically
– use of acronyms
• HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
• ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat
Tom’s Ice Cream
StorageRetaining Information
• Sensory Memory
–the immediate, initial recording of sensory
information in the memory system
• Iconic Memory
–a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
–a photographic or picture image memory lasting no
more that a few tenths of a second
–Registration of exact representation of a scene
• Echoic Memory
–momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
The location of
Long Term Memory
• Explicit Memory
–memory of facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and declare
–hippocampus- neural center in limbic
system that helps process explicit memories
for storage
–Verbal in the left
–Visual in the right
Retrieval- Getting Information Out
• Recall
–the ability to retrieve info learned
earlier and not in conscious
awareness-like fill in the blank tests
• Recognition
–the ability to identify previously
learned items-like on a multiple choice
test
Priming
• Priming is a retrieval cue
–activation, often unconsciously, of
particular associations in memory
–The examples in the book: you see a
child missing poster, then later look
differently at ambiguous child-adult
interactions.
–Or you see a rabbit that prompts you to
spell h-a-r-e rather than h-a-i-r.
StorageLong Term Memory, 330
• Amnesia- the loss of memory
• Explicit Memory
– memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare
– hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that
helps process explicit memories for storage
• Implicit Memory
–
–
–
–
retention without conscious recollection
motor and cognitive skills
dispositions- conditioning
CEREBELLUM AND BASAL GANGLIA
The location of
Long Term Memory, 330
• Explicit Memory
– memory of facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and declare
– hippocampus- neural center in limbic
system that helps process explicit memories
for storage
– Verbal in the left
– Visual in the right
Memory Effects, 324
1. Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so
anxious about being next that you cannot
remember what the person just before you
in line says, but you can recall what other
people around you say.
2. Spacing Effect: We retain information better
when we rehearse over time.
3. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is
better for first and last items on a list, but
poor for middle items.
Why we forget
Forgetting as Interference
• Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
– Proactive(forward acting) Interference
• disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of
new information
– Retroactive (backwards acting)
Interference
• disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
Forgetting as Interference
Dr. Elizabeth Loftus on false
memory creation, 347 ff.
• Expert on false memory
and reconstructed
memories
• The misinformation
effect: incorporating
misleading information
into one’s memory of
an event.
http://www.seweb.uci.edu/psb/images/faculty/beth.jpg
Forgetting- Interference
• Motivated Forgetting
–people unknowingly revise history
• Repression (Freud’s idea)
–defense mechanism that banishes anxietyarousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Children’s Eyewitness Recall, 350
• Researchers Stephen Ceci and Maggie Bruck
discuss the susceptibility of children to develop
false memories
• Factors include:
• A. exposure to misinformation : The
children were asked leading questions
by therapists using anatomical dolls.
• B. source amnesia: wrong person
identified
• C. Many of the children were under
age 3 when the alleged event
happened. (infantile amnesia)
http://www.human.cornell.edu/che/Features/images/sjc9.jpg, . http://hooulu.org/10102001/pix/maggie.jpg
Memory Construction and the
misinformation effect, 382
Depiction of actual accident
•
Eyewitnesses
incorrectly reconstruct
memories when
questioned. If asked a
leading question they
assume more damage
was done.
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction
Amnesia 342
• Anterograde: can’t remember things after
the incident
• Retrograde: can’t remember things before
the incident
Thinking concepts
Misusing heuristics: Availability
Heuristic
– estimating the likelihood of events
based on their availability in memory
– if instances come readily to mind
(perhaps because of their vividness),
we presume such events are common
A. Divergent Thinking: The goal of divergent
thinking is to generate many different ideas about
a topic in a short period of time. (convergent
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
focuses on one answer)
1. Foot
2. Chair
3. Party
4. Green or club
5. Paper
6. Light
7. Bar
8. bee
Prototype
= a mental image or best example of a
category. Matching new items to a
prototype provides a quick and easy
method for sorting items into categories
(as when comparing feathered creatures
to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
Algorithms, 361
Algorithms, which are very time consuming,
exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
solution. Computers use algorithms.
SPLOYOCHYG
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word
using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,208 possibilities.
Heuristics example: shopping,
362
Example: you go to a specific
section to find drinks. You
don’t check every isle and shelf
B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images
Heuristics allow us to make
judgments and solve
problems efficiently.
Heuristics are less time
consuming, but more errorprone than algorithms.
Insight
Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when solving problems.
Wolfgang Kohler’s 1925 experiment on insight to solve a problem
used a chimpanzee
Perseverance and bias
• Belief Perseverance
– clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on
which they were formed has been discredited
• Confirmation bias contributes to belief
perseverance
• Once you have an idea it’s difficult to dislodge it;
any disconfirming evidence falls on deaf ears
“Mental set” for No. 1
• Mental sets can be obstacles to
problem solving PAGE 363
• Based on one’s past experiences with
series problems, the mental set is the
tendency to see the alphabetical
characters as single entities (letters) and
not as parts (the first letters) of some
related larger entities (the digit words;
e.g., 1=one, 2=two, etc.).
Fixation, 363
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a
fresh perspective. This impedes problem
solving. Two examples of fixation are mental set
and functional fixedness.
From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by
Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The Matchstick
Problem: How would
you arrange six
matches to form four
equilateral triangles?
Heuristics
• Representativeness Heuristic
• rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of
things in terms of how well they seem to
represent, or match, particular
prototypes
– may lead one to ignore other relevant
information
Overconfidence
– tendency to be more confident than
correct
– tendency to overestimate the accuracy of
one’s beliefs and judgments
– Experts experience this: weather
forecasters, economists, military leaders,
scientists.
– They think they know more than they
really do.
Causes of overconfidence, 365
Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and
the inclination to explain failures increase our
overconfidence.
At the stock market, both
the seller and the buyer
may be confident about
their decisions on a
stock.
Belief Perseverance, 367
– clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been
discredited.
– It takes much evidence to convince you of the
incorrectness of your views once they are
formed than it did to develop them in the first
place.
– “Once you have a belief, it influences how you
perceive all other relevant information.” Dr.
Robert Jervis
Framing
– the way an issue is posed
– how an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions and
judgements
– Example: What is the best way to
market ground beef- As 25% fat or
75% lean?
Language
Phoneme
The smallest distinct sound unit in a spoken
language. For example:
bat, has three phonemes b · a · t
chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t
Morpheme
The smallest unit that carries a meaning. It may
be a word or part of a word. For example:
Milk = milk
Pumpkin = pump . kin
Unforgettable = un · for · get · table
Semantics, 373
Semantics is the set of rules by which we derive
meaning from morphemes, words, and
sentences.
For example:
One semantic rule tells us that adding –ed to the
word laugh means that it happened in the past.
Syntax, 373
Syntax consists of the rules for combining
words into grammatically sensible sentences.
For example:
In English, syntactical rule says that adjectives
come before nouns; white house.
In Spanish, it is reversed; casa blanca.
Babbling stage
– beginning at 3 to 4 months
– First able to discriminate speech sounds at
this stage
– the stage of speech development in which
the infant spontaneously utters various
sounds at first unrelated to the household
language
Telegraphic Speech
= early speech state in which a child speaks
like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly
nouns and verbs.
Chomsky on how we learn
language
a. ability to speak language is largely inborn
b. we have a language acquisition capacity called
the language acquisition device
c. Children just pick up the word order pattern on
their own (Dan Slobin). That’s called the “deep
structure.”
Linguistic determinism
A. Benjamin Whorf’s Linguistic relativity
theory/linguistic determinism
Language determines how we think
a. most evident in those speaking two
languages: they can think in both languages
if they learn them early enough
b. Another example: Eskimos think about
snow differently than we do since they have
so many names for it
Animal thinking and language
Koko and Washoe
Washoe learned hundreds and Koko mastered
more than 1,000 words in American Sign
Language.
This challenges preconceptions about the
limits of animal intelligence & expressing
thoughts and emotions.
Dolphins mirror test
Dolphin intelligence
displayed in an experiment
wimp.com/dolphinsmirror
Animal language?
3.
Chimpanzees use
signs meaningfully
but lack syntax (the
rules for how to
organize sentences).
They often mix up the
few symbols they
use.
Criticisms of animal language
claims
1.
2.
3.
4.
Apes acquire their limited vocabularies with a
great deal of difficulty, unlike children who
develop vocabularies at amazing rates.
Chimpanzees can make signs to receive a
reward, just as a pigeon who pecks at the key
receives a reward. However, pigeons have not
learned a language.
Chimpanzees use signs meaningfully but lack
syntax (the rules for how to organize
sentences). They often mix up the few
symbols they use.
Presented with ambiguous information, people
tend to see what they want to see.