Transcript Memory - Union County College

Memory
Chapter 8
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Memory
Definition
Information Processing Models
Encoding: Getting Information In
 How We Encode
 What We Encode
Retrieval: Retrieval Cues
Forgetting
 Encoding Failure
 Storage Decay
Storage: Retaining Information
 Sensory Memory
 Working/Short-Term Memory
 Long-Term Memory
Rehearsal
Storing Memories in the Brain
 Retrieval Failure
Memory Construction
 Misinformation and
Imagination Effects
 Source Amnesia
 Children’s Eyewitness Recall
 Repressed or Constructed
Memories of Abuse?
Improving Memory
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Definition
Memory is any indication that learning has
persisted over time.
It is our ability to store and retrieve
information.
It is not replaying the events
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Which color is on top on a stoplight?
How many rows of stars are on the U.S. flag?
Whose image is on a dime? Is he wearing a tie?
What five words besides In God We Trust appear
on most U.S. coins?
• When water goes down the drain, does it swirl
clockwise or counterclockwise?
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• Which color is on top on a stoplight?
Red
• How many rows of stars are on the U.S. flag?
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• Whose image is on a dime? Is he wearing a tie?
F.D. Roosevelt with no tie
• What five words besides In God We Trust appear on most
U.S. coins?
“United States of America” and “Liberty,”
• When water goes down the drain, does it swirl clockwise
or counterclockwise?
water drains counterclockwise in the Northern hemisphere
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Studying Memory:
Information Processing Models
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Sequential Process
Monitor
(Retrieval)
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Information Processing
Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/
Corbis
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model
of memory includes a) sensory memory, b)
short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.
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Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your school) is
automatically processed.
2. However, new or unusual information
(friend’s new cell-phone number) requires
attention and effort.
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Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information
effortlessly, such as the following:
1. Space: While reading a textbook, you
automatically encode the place of a picture
on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events
that take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of
things that happen to you.
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Effortful Processing
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Committing novel
information to memory
requires effort just like
learning a concept from
a textbook. Such
processing leads to
durable and accessible
memories.
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Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three
stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Sensory Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the
different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
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Whole Report
Sperling (1960)
R G T
F M Q
L Z S
“Recall”
RTMZ
(44% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
The exposure time for the stimulus is so small
that items cannot be rehearsed.
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Partial Report
S X T
J R S
P K Y
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”
JRS
(100% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity
was larger than what was originally thought.
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Time Delay
A D I
N L V
O G H
Low Tone
Time
Delay
“Recall”
Medium Tone
N__
(33% recall)
High Tone
50 ms (1/20 second)
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Working Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term
memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short
duration (20 seconds).
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or
Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information
(1956).
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Capacity
Ready?
MUTGIKTLRSYP
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Chunking
The capacity of the working memory may be
increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks
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Working Memory Duration
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Long-Term Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Long-Term Memory
Essentially unlimited capacity store.
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.
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Long-term memory
The memory system involved in the
long-term storage of information
One way information is organized is in
semantic categories (e.g., animals).
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Conceptual grid
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Types of long-term
memories
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Contents of long-term
memory
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Semantic memories
General knowledge, including facts, rules,
concepts, and propositions
Episodic memories
Personally experienced events and the
contexts in which they occurred
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Memory Stores
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
LTM
Encoding
Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.25 sec.
20 sec.
Years
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Rehearsal
Effortful learning
usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables:
TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
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Rehearsal
The more times the
nonsense syllables were
practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions were
required to remember
them on Day 2.
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Memory Effects
1. Spacing Effect: We retain information
better when we rehearse over time.
2. Serial Position Effect: When your
recall is better for first and last items
on a list, but poor for middle items.
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Serial-position effect
The tendency for
recall of first and last
items on a list to
surpass recall of
items in the middle of
the list
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Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and
organizational devices in aiding memory.
ROYGBIV
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Storing Memories in the Brain
1. Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed
previous research data showing,
through brain stimulation, that
memories were unintentionally
invented.
2. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested
that even after removing parts of the
brain, the animals retain partial
memory of the maze.
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Synaptic Changes
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller
Long-Term Potentiation
(LTP) refers to synaptic
enhancement after
learning (Lynch, 2002).
An increase in
neurotransmitter release
or receptors on the
receiving neuron
indicates strengthening
of synapses.
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Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or
otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Flashbulb memories are clear memories of
emotionally significant moments or events
Scott Barbour/ Getty Images
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Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory
involves learning an action while the individual does not
know or declare what she knows.
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Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic
system that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield & Nicolson archives
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Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient
Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the
operation but cannot make new memories. We call
this anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery
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Implicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit), but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit).
A
B
C
HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time
he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already
played the game.
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Cerebellum
Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.
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