Memory - Budapest University of Technology and Economics
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Transcript Memory - Budapest University of Technology and Economics
Memory
Rozalia Ivady
BME – Cognitive Science Department
ImpLab Scientific Society
Psychology Class, McDaniels College, 29th October 2007
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores
Retention curves – serial position data
Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory
Short term memory
Long term memory
Three processes
Forgetting
Explicit and implicit memory
Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
But before anything else
Provo is a picturesque region of France.
Corman was a pretender to the throne of
Provo.
He was tired of waiting.
He thought arsenic might work.
Try to remember these!
Look at these pictures
Now look carefully at these
pictures. You will need to
recall them later.
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores
Retention curves – serial position data
Memory dysfunctions
Iconic memory
Short term memory
Long term memory
Three processes
Explicit and implicit memory
Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
Try to recall as many items as you can!
Cat
Chair
Apple
Screw
Banana
Pigeon
Hammer
Orange
Toothpick
Knife
Parrot
Bed
Table
Dog
Blackberry
Fork
Fly
Rat
Multiple stores or MLP?
Multiple stores or MLP?
Primacy effect
Recency effect
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
Memory dysfunctions - amnesia
Famous Anterograde Amnesiac: HM
Severe epilepsy, treated with surgery to
bilaterally remove medial temporal lobes,
including hippocampus
Operation 9/1953, 27 years old
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to acquire new information
“memento”
Does not affect short-term memory and general
knowledge from the past
But, it is difficult to learn new facts
Affects memory regardless of modality (visual,
auditory, tactile, etc). Spares skilled performance
Hyper-specific memory for those skills that are
learned after onset – learning is expressed only in
context in which it was encoded
Amnesia
Types of amnesia
Anterograde
Retrograde
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores
Retention curves – serial position data
Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory
Short term memory
Long term memory
Three processes
Explicit and implicit memory
Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
There is more than we can tell…
Eidetic pictures of
children
How many stripes did you
see on the cat?
Sensory Memory Store
Function - holds information
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
long enough to be
processed for basic
physical characteristics
Capacity - large
can hold many items at
once
Duration - very brief
retention of images
.3 sec for visual info
2 sec for auditory info
Sensory Memory Store
Divided into two
subtypes:
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
iconic memory - visual
information
echoic memory auditory information
Visual or iconic memory
was discovered by
Sperling in 1960
Sperling’s Experiment
Presented matrix of letters for
1/20 seconds
Report as many letters as
possible
Subjects recall only half of the
letters
Was this because subjects
didn’t have enough time to
view entire matrix? No
How did Sperling know this?
Sperling’s Experiment
Sperling showed people can see
and recall ALL the letters
momentarily
Sounded low, medium or high
tone immediately after matrix
disappeared
tone signaled 1 row to report
recall was almost perfect
Memory for image fades after
1/3 seconds or so, making report
of entire display hard to do
High
Medium
Low
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
G
A
V
M K
U
X
L
S
F
Q
J
O
N
U
A
N
Z
What Letters Do You See? DiLollo
…..
What Letters Do You See?
…..
…..
What Letters Do You See?
…..
Sensory Memory Store
Sensory memory forms
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
automatically, without
attention or
interpretation
Attention is needed to
transfer information to
working memory
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores
Retention curves – serial position data
Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory
Short term memory
Long term memory
Three processes
Explicit and implicit memory
Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
Working Memory Store
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Working or
Short-term
Memory
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
Working Memory Store
Function - conscious processing of information
where information is actively worked on
Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)
Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Code - often based on sound or speech even
with visual inputs
Sensory
Input
Attention
Sensory
Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Working Memory Store
What happens if you need to keep
information in working memory longer than 30
seconds?
To demonstrate, memorize the following
phone number (presented one digit at a
time)...
8 5 7 91 6 3
Working Memory Store
857-9163
What is the number?
The number lasted in your working memory
longer than 30 seconds
So, how were you able to remember the
number?
Maintenance Rehearsal
Mental or verbal repetition of information
Allows information to remain in working
memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
What happens if you can’t use maintenance
rehearsal?
Memory decays quickly
To demonstrate, again memorize a phone
number (presented one digit at a time)
BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by
sevens (i.e., 1014, 1007, 1000 … etc.)
6 2 8 50 9 4
Working Memory Store
628-5094
What is the number?
Without rehearsal, memory fades
Peterson’s STM Task
Test of memory for 3-
letter nonsense
syllables
Participants count
backwards for a few
seconds, then recall
Without rehearsal,
memory fades
Working Memory Model
Baddeley (1992)
3 interacting components
Visuospatial
Sketch Pad
Central
Executive
Phonological
Loop
Working Memory Model
Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial
info
Phonological loop - holds verbal information
Central executive - coordinates all activities of
working memory; brings new information into
working memory from sensory and long-term
memory
Visuospatial
Sketch pad
Central
Executive
Phonological
Loop
Long-Term Memory Store
Once information passes from sensory to
working memory, it can be encoded into
long-term memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
Long-Term Memory Store
Function - organizes and stores information
more passive form of storage than working
memory
Unlimited capacity
Duration - thought by some to be permanent
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Attention
Sensory
Memory
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
Review of Long-Term Memory
Organizes and stores information
Capacity unlimited
Thought by some to be permanent
Encoding transfers info from STM to LTM
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Attention
Sensory
Memory
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
Summary
Modal model of memory
three memory stores (sensory, working and
long-term memory)
Three processes and sins of memory
Encoding - process that controls
movement from working to long-term
memory store
Storage
Retrieval - process that controls flow of
information from long-term to working
memory store
Forgetting and the fight against it
Elaboration
Chunking
Thories of forgetting
Problems in encoding
Problems of retention
Problems of retrieval – interference ,inhibition
Elaboration
Focus on meaning of information to encode it
into LTM
don’t simply repeat items over and over
tie item to other info in memory
also called elaborative rehearsal
Ways to Use Elaboration
Actively question new information
Think about its implications
Relate information to things you already know
Generate own examples of concepts
Don’t highlight passage as you read
focus on the ideas in the text
Which Level is More Effective?
Elaboration leads to better recall than shallow
processing
Type of
Processing
Deep
0
Shallow -Acoustic
Shallow - Visual
10
20
30
40
50 60
70
80
Percent of words recalled
90 100
More Evidence for Elaboration
Positive correlation between grades and use
of elaboration in 5th grade students
In an experiment, college students assigned
to use elaboration received higher grades
than students not taught elaboration
Chunking
Grouping small bits of information into larger
units of information
expands working memory load
Which is easier to remember?
4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
483 792 516
Visualization
Key word method
Method of loci
Forgetting Theories
Encoding failure
Role of time
Interference theories
Forgetting as Encoding Failure
Information never encoded into LTM
X
Encoding Failure Demonstrations
What letters accompany the number 5 on
your telephone?
Where is the number 0 on your calculator?
According to this theory, objects seen
frequently, but information is never encoded
into LTM
Forgetting as Retrieval Failure
Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures
Sometimes information IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t
retrieve it
X
Role of Time : Decay Theory
Memories fade away or
decay gradually if unused
Time plays critical role
Ability to retrieve info
declines with time after
original encoding
Problem: Many things
change with time.
Something else may
change and actually
cause forgetting:
Interference
Interference Theories
“Memories interfering with memories”
Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time
Caused by one memory competing with or replacing
another memory
Two types of interference
Two Types of Interference
Types of interference
Retroactive
Interference
Proactive
Interference
Retroactive Interference
When a NEW memory interferes with
remembering OLD information
Example: When new phone number interferes
with ability to remember old phone number
Retroactive Interference
Example: Learning a new language interferes with
ability to remember old language
Proactive Interference
Opposite of retroactive
interference
When an OLD memory
interferes with
remembering NEW
information
Example: Memories of
where you parked your
car on campus the past
week interferes with
ability find car today
Proactive Interference
Example: Previously learned language interferes with
ability to remember newly learned language
Retrieval Cue Theories
Retrieval cue - a clue, prompt or hint that
can help memory retrieval
Forgetting is the result of using improper
retrieval cues
Encoding Specificity Principle
Learn word list
generate ‘cue’ when
see word (jam - jelly)
at recall cues given as
retrieval aid
(jelly or traffic)
Cues generated during
learning (jelly) more
effective during retrieval
than new cues (traffic)
Context-Dependent Memory
Improved ability to remember if tested in the same
environment as the initial learning environment
better recall if tested in classroom where you initially
learned info than if moved to a new classroom
if learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs,
people will recall more info if tested in room with the
same smell compared to different smell or no smell at
all
Context-Dependent Effects
Compare words learned underwater vs on land
Words heard underwater are best recalled
underwater
Words heard on land are best recalled on land
Context Dependent Effects
Time of day is also important
Learn at 3 pm
Perform better at 3 pm
Than 9 pm
12
12
12
9
3
6
9
3
6
9
3
6
State-Dependent Memory
Recall improved if internal physiological or emotional
state is the same during testing and initial encoding
Context vs State dependent
Context-dependent - external, environmental factors
State-dependent - internal, physiological factors
State-Dependent Effects
Mood or emotions also a factor
Bipolar depressives
information learned in manic state, recall more if
testing done during manic state
information learned in depressed state, recall
more if testing done during depressed state
State Dependent Effects
If drink during
learning
May recall better
with drink
Than without
But not as well
as sober all the
way!
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores
Retention curves – serial position data
Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory
Short term memory
Long term memory
Three processes
Forgetting
Explicit and implicit memory
Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
Constructing memories
Recall the sentences from the beginning of
the lesson! Write them down.
Memory Construction
Recall not an exact replica of original events
Recall a construction built and rebuilt from various
sources
Often fit memories into existing beliefs
Remember those
drawings? Can you
draw them?
Time can be even shorter
The War of the Ghosts
One night two young men from Egulacwent down to the river to hunt seals, and while they were there it became
foggy and calm. Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: "Maybe this is a war-party". They escaped to the
shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one canoe
coming up to them. There were five men m the canoe, and they said:
"What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the people".
One of the young men said: "I have no arrows".
"Arrows are in the canoe", they said.
"I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you", he said, turning to
the other, "may go with them."
So one of the young men went, but the other returned home.
And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the
water, and they began to fight, and manywere killed. But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say:
"Quick, let us go home:that Indian has been hit". Now he thought: "Oh, they are ghosts". He did not feel sick,
but they said he had been shot.
So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young man went ashore to his house, and made a fire. And he told
everybody and said: " Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed,
and many of those who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel sick".
He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down. Something black came out of his
mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried.
He was dead.
Recall the story
3 months later
Some warriors went to wage way against the ghosts. They
fought all day and one of their number was wounded.
They returned home in the evening, bearing their sick comrade.
As the day drew to a close, he became rapidly worse and the
villagers came round him. At sunset he sighed: something black
came out of his mouth. He was dead.
Schema Theories
Schema - mental representation of an object, scene
or event
example: schema of a countryside may include green
grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc.
Scripts - type of schema
mental organization of events in time
example of a classroom script: come into class, sit
down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to
speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc.
Schemas & scripts provide framework for new
information
Eyewitness Testimony
Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into
existing schemas
Eyewitnesses usually see something complex just once
then have to remember it
Sometimes new information is distorted by
fitting into an existing schema
subsequent information (famous experiment by Loftus)
Loftus Experiment
Subjects shown video
of an accident between
two cars
Some subjects asked:
How fast were the cars
going when they
smashed into each
other?
Others asked: How fast
were the cars going
when they hit each
other?
Loftus’s Results
Speed estimates
depended on how the
question was phrased
Subjects memory for
broken glass also
depended on the
phrasing of the speed
question.
But this was a false
memory: there was no
broken glass
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores
Retention curves – serial position data
Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory
Short term memory
Long term memory
Three processes
Forgetting
Explicit and implicit memory
Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
Long-term Memory Systems
Long-term Memory
Explicit Memory
Episodic
Memory
Semantic
Memory
Implicit Memory
Procedural
Memory
Classical
Conditioning
Priming
Explicit Memory
Also known as declarative or conscious memory
Properties:
memory consciously recalled or declared
Can use to directly respond to a question
Two subtypes of explicit memory
Subtypes of Explicit Memory
Explicit Memory
Episodic Memory Semantic Memory
Episodic Memory
Memory tied to your own personal experiences
Examples:
what did you have for dinner?
do you like to eat caramel apples?
Why are these explicit memories?
Because you can actively declare your answers to these
questions
Semantic Memory
Memory not tied to personal events
General facts and definitions about the world
Examples:
who was George Washington?
what is a cloud?
what is the climate at the north pole?
These are explicit memories because you can describe
what you know about them.
Unlike episodic memories, your knowledge does NOT
include your personal experience
i.e., You may never have been to the north pole but do know
about it.
Implicit Memory
Also known as nondeclarative memory
Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not
enter consciousness
Three subtypes
Subtypes of Implicit Memory
Implicit Memory
Classical
Conditioning
Procedural
Memory
Priming
Classical Conditioning
Studied earlier
Implicit because it
is automatically
retrieved
Procedural Memory
Memory that enables you to perform specific
learned skills or habitual responses
Examples:
Riding a bike
How to speak grammatically
Tying your shoe laces
Why are these procedural memories implicit?
Can’t readily describe their contents
try describing how to tie your shoes
They are automatically retrieved when appropriate
Priming
Priming is influence of one memory on
another
priming is implicit because it does not depend
on awareness and is automatic
Here is a demonstration
Priming Demonstration
Unscramble the
following words:
O R E S
ROSE
L T E P A
PETAL
K T A L S
STALK
TSME
STEM
L O B S O M S
BLOSSOM
ELAF
Priming Demonstration
ELAF = LEAF
Why not respond
FLEA?
Because flower parts
were primed
(flower power)
Priming
Activation of one or more existing memories by a
stimulus
Activation not a conscious decision
BUT, can effect subsequent thoughts and actions
Two types of priming
Two Types of Priming
Priming
Conceptual Perceptual
Conceptual Priming
The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences
your encoding or retrieval
Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in
semantic memory
Example: Flower power priming demonstration
Does not depend on sense modality: pictures can
conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE
SHOWS
Priming across modalities
Look at the picture .
Then when the
instructor says a word,
write it down.
Perceptual Priming
Prime enhances ability to identify a test stimulus
based on its physical features
Does not work across sense modalities
Perceptual Priming
Can you identify the
fragmented stimulus to
the right?
Perceptual Priming
What if you were shown
the following slide earlier
in the lecture?
Perceptual Priming
Can you identify the
fragmented stimulus to
the right?
Evidence for Separate
Implicit/Explicit Systems
Neurophysiological evidence
Patient H.M.
life-threatening seizures originating in temporal lobe
surgically removed portions of temporal lobe
Temporal Lobe
Includes:
hippocampus
amygdala
Patient H.M.
Surgery was effective in reducing seizures
BUT, had other side effects as well
Can remember explicit memories acquired before the
surgery
e.g., old addresses, normal vocabulary
Cannot form NEW explicit memories
e.g., remembering the name of someone he met 30
minutes prior
cannot name new world leaders or performers
can recognize a picture of himself from before his
surgery but not from after and doesn’t recognize
himself in a mirror
Patient H.M.
H.M. has severe explicit / declarative memory
disorder
H.M. is almost normal on procedural or implicit
memory tasks including priming, classical
conditioning, and learning motor skills
This shows that explicit memory depends upon the
temporal lobes and implicit does not
Patient H.M. Summary
Temporal lobe damage led to deficits in explicit, but
not implicit memory
H.M. had both episodic and semantic memory deficits
Damage to the hippocampus alone produces
episodic, but not semantic memory deficits
Why did H.M. show both types of explicit memory
deficits?
He had damage not only to hippocampus, but to other
structures as well
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores
Retention curves – serial position data
Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory
Short term memory
Long term memory
Three processes
Forgetting
Explicit and implicit memory
Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
Thank you for your attention, that
much on memory today….