Transcript Day 12 Memory, Motivation and Willpower

Motivation
Willpower
Memory
Motivation
Motivational Theories and Concepts
• Motives – needs, wants, desires leading to
goal-directed behavior
• Drive theories – seeking homeostasis
• Incentive theories – regulation by external
stimuli
• Evolutionary theories – maximizing
reproductive success
Motivation
• Motivation
– a need or desire that energizes and
directs behavior
• Instinct
– complex behavior that is rigidly
patterned throughout a species and is
unlearned
Motivation
• Drive-Reduction Theory
– the idea that a physiological need
creates an aroused tension state
(a drive) that motivates an
organism to satisfy the need
Motivation
• Homeostasis
– tendency to maintain a balanced or
constant internal state
– regulation of any aspect of body
chemistry around a particular level
• Incentives
– a positive or negative environmental
stimulus that motivates behavior
Figure 9.2 The diversity of human motives
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Motivation
• Intrinsic Motivation
– desire to perform a behavior for its own
sake or to be effective
• Extrinsic Motivation
– desire to perform a behavior due to
promised rewards or threats of
punishment
Rewards Affect
Motivation
Mom: “I’ll give you $5 for every A.’’
Controlling reward
Child: “As long as she pays,
I’ll study.’’
Extrinsic motivation
Mom: “Your grades were great!
Let’s celebrate by going out
for dinner.’’
Informative reward
Child: “I love doing well.’’
Intrinsic motivation
Critical Thinking about Motivation and
Emotion—Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic
Views of Motivation
• Empirical View (e.g. Skinner)
– Extrinsic (incentives / disincentives)
– Rewards & punishments affect an
individual’s tendency to respond in the
way necessary for learning to occur
• Cognitive View (e.g. Piaget)
– Intrinsic (goals & objectives)
– Individual interest in a domain of cognitive
activity drive learning
Empirical
• Effectiveness of incentives nonetheless
derives from individual goals & objectives
– Biological in nature: goals reflect what is
necessary for surviving and thriving
• Performance approach - desire to outdo
others and avoid appearance of inferiority
Cognitive
• Learning motivation is a result of need to
reconcile differences in our understanding of
the world.
• Mastery approach - desire to learn and
understand and avoid misunderstanding
Willpower
Will Power
• Kelly McGonigal – Will power 101
• ‘I Will’ Challenges
• ‘I Won’t’ Challenges
Will Power
Battle between ‘two minds’ – two parts of
yourself
•Pre – frontal cortex
•Amygdala
•Taking the ‘high road’ uses a lot of the brain’s
energy
Train Willpower
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Sleep
Meditation
Physical Exercise
Low glycemic plant based diet
Train Willpower
• Sleep intervention
– Drug addicts – taught breath focused
meditation – focused on sleep 5-15 mins
– Increased sleep by at least one hour
– Incearsed sleep predicted relapse
– Minutes meditation per week also
predicted relapse
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Britten et al 2010
Set back or Failure – give yourself a
break
• Dieters forced to eat a donut – taste test
• Randomly assigned to control/experimental
group
• Experimental group – ‘Give yourself a break’self compassion
• Eat less than ½ compared to control group
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Adams and Leary 2007
Self compassion message
• Mindfulness of thoughts and feelings
• Common humanity
• Encouragement over criticism
Current Self vs. Future self
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Future Self
• More overlap – the more ‘look after the future’
(savings) – more will power
• Future self a stranger – less likely to ‘look
after the future’
• Conversation with your future self
Ersner, Hershfield et al
Visualizing Failure vs. Visualizing Success
Visualizing Failure vs. Visualizing Success
• Imagined themselves failing – asked to focus
on what the issues/obstacles – when, where
• ‘How will you defend against this’
• Double amount of exercising
• 16 weeks later x2 as likely to keep changes
going compared to control
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Stadler, Oettinger & Gollwitzer 2009
Holding Breath
‘Surfing the Urge’
• Distress tolerance – stay put when it gets
difficult
• Smoking – quit of 24hrs – then asked to come
with unopened pack
• Power of Acceptance
‘Surfing the Urge’
• Notice the thoughts, craving, feeling
• Accept and attend to inner experience
• Breath – and give your body and brain a
chance to pause and plan
• Broaden your attention and look for the
actions that will help you achieve the goal
Willpower Rules
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Train your willpower physiology
Forgive yourself – self compassion
Make friends with your future self
Predict failure
Surf the urge
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Kelly McGonigal – The Willpower Instinct
Memory
Human Memory: Basic Questions
• How does information get into memory?
• How is information maintained in memory?
• How is information pulled back out of
memory?
The processes of memory
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Encoding
Storage
Retrieval (remembering)
Forgetting
Storage
• Three levels of storage
• Level 1: Sensory memory
• Level 2: Short term memory or
working memory
• Level 3: Long term memory
Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory
Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory
• The role of attention
• Focusing awareness
• Divided attention
Figure 7.3 Levels-of-processing theory
Enriching Encoding
• Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other
information at the time of encoding
– Thinking of examples
• Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to
represent words to be remembered
– Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding
theory
Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory
• Analogy: information storage in computers ~
information storage in human memory
• Information-processing theories
– Subdivide memory into three different
stores
• Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
Figure 7.6 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage
Sensory Memory
• Brief preservation of information in original
sensory form
• Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second
Short Term Memory (STM)
• Limited duration – about 20 seconds
without rehearsal
– Rehearsal – the process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about the
information
• Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus
or minus 2
– Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for
storage as a single unit
– Chimp memory
Long-Term Memory
• Unlimited Capacity and lengthy storage time
• Permanent storage?
– Flashbulb memories
• How is knowledge represented and organized
in memory?
– Schemas and Scripts
– Semantic Networks
– Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
What is your long term memory?
• It has unlimited capacity, and lengthy
storage time
• Information maybe stays there
forever, it just can’t be retrieved OR it
may decay
• Things will sometimes get into our
long term memory as a side effect of
our thinking, not always from trying to
memorize - remembering is a side
effect of thinking
What is your long term memory?
• We sort the stuff we remember, and
remember what is important to us, or
what is consistent with what we think
should be there
• There are cultural differences in what
is considered important to remember,
and how it is remembered
Retrieval: Getting Information
Out of Memory
• The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure
in retrieval
– Retrieval cues
• Reinstating the context
– Context cues
• Reconstructing memories
– Misinformation effect
• Source monitoring
Forgetting: When Memory Lapses
• Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
• Retention – the proportion of material
retained
– Recall
– Recognition
– Relearning
Figure 7.10 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve for nonsense syllables
Why We Forget
• Ineffective Encoding
• Decay
• Interference
– Proactive
– Retroactive
• Retrieval failure
• Repression
– Authenticity of repressed memories?
– Memory illusions
– Controversy
Retrieval Failure
• Encoding Specificity
• Transfer-Appropriate Processing
• Repression
– Authenticity of repressed memories?
– Memory illusions
– Controversy
TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY
• We seem to have different kinds of
memory
• They come into the brain through
different pathways
• They are stored in different ways
and in different places in the brain
Figure 7.17 Theories of independent memory systems
Types of long term memory
Explicit
Implicit
• I am conscious that
I remember this
• Operant
conditioning leads
to this kind of
memory
• I am not conscious
that I remember this
• It shows up in my
behaviour
• Classical
conditioning leads
to this kind of
emotional memory
• The secret of a good
memory is the secret of
forming diverse and multiple
associations with every fact
we care to retain
Whereabouts in the brain are
memories stored?
• We seem to have different networks operating for
different kinds of memory
• Implicit memories come through the amygdala
• Explicit memories come through the
hippocampus
• Once consolidated, they are stored in the original
site eg. motor memory in the motor context,
language memory in the language areas of the
brain
Anatomy of Memory
Bilateral damage to
the hippocampus
results in anterograde
amnesia (Patient H.M.)
Anatomy of
Memory
Amygdala: emotional memory and memory consolidation
Basal ganglia & cerebellum: memory for skills, habits and CC
responses
Hippocampus: memory recognition, spatial, episodic
memory, laying down new declarative long-term memories
Thalamus, formation of new memories and working
memories
Cortical Areas: encoding of factual memories, storage of
episodic and semantic memories, skill learning, priming.
Remembering (retrieval)
• Complex process
• We use partial cues
• Each time we remember, we
reconstruct the memory
• Tip of the tongue phenomenon is
when the semantic memory is there,
but not the information about the
name
What helps us remember?
• Context reconstruction
• Having spaces between the learning
sessions
• Using lots of different ways to encode the
information
(a) Overlearning
(b) Using visual imagery (method of loci)
(c) Using mnemonic devices
Forgetting – why do we forget?
• We never learned it properly in the first
place because of lack of attention or lack of
in depth processing
• It decays (Short term memory especially)
• Interference from other material you have
learned
• Retrieval failure: cue needs to match the
encoded memory
• Motivated forgetting: instructing ourselves
to forget, repressed memory
Memories are imperfect
reconstructions – subject to distortion
• Hindsight distortion: memory recalled
is influenced by present knowledge
• Influence: we take on board what we
are told, or see, or other’s opinions
• Source monitoring errors: we make
mistakes about where we learned the
information
•
Stephen Wiltshire
The Human Camera.mp4
Memory Decline in Normal Aging
Definition: Memory refers to the storage,
retention and recall of information including
past experiences, knowledge and thoughts
• Only some types of memory loss are
associated with normal aging
• Other types are typical of disease states
Types of Memory and Loss
• Working (intermediate term) – loss occurs
with normal aging
• Episodic- especially impaired in normal aging
e.g. ability to process recent information
• Semantic (e.g. vocabulary) – Improves with
age; lost in dementias
• Procedural (long-term memory of skills) shows No Decline with age; affected by
diseases
Types of Memory and Loss
• Very long-term memory (months to years)increases up to age 50; maintained until well
after 70
• Short-term memory- shows little decline; loss
associated with diseases
• Older adults tend to be worse at
remembering the source of their information
•
Clive Wearring
• Video/How Does Your Memory Work
Pt.3.mp4
• Video/How Does Your Memory Work
Pt.4.mp4