Transcript KINGDOM MONERA

KINGDOM
MONERA
The Prokaryotes:
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
Characteristics of Bacteria
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i.
ii.
Prokaryote means “before a nucleus.”
They are single-celled organisms and
the smallest, simplest organisms.
This kingdom is subdivided into two
kingdoms:
Archaebacteria
Eubacteria
i.
Archaebacteria – “achaio” comes from the
Greek means “ancient”. Found in anaerobic
conditions with high salt concentrations, high
temperatures and a low pH.
ii.
Eubacteria – This group includes the true
bacteria and is the largest and most
successful of the two kingdoms.
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Bacteria all share these five characteristics
-All bacteria are single-celled
-All bacteria are prokaryotes. Their DNA is
not surrounded by a membrane.
-Cell organelles in bacteria are not
surrounded by membranes.
-The DNA of bacteria is made of a single
chromosome.
- Bacteria are the smallest organisms
measuring from 1-10 micrometres.
Kingdom Eubacteria
 Unicellular
(single-cell)
 Prokaryotes (no membrane-bound
organelles)
 Cell Walls contain peptidoglycan, not
cellulose
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It contains a cell wall that
provides support and protection
for the contents of the cell.
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The
cytoplasm
contains
ribosomes, responsible for the
formation of proteins and DNA.
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The DNA forms a single
chromosome and forms a ring.
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Some bacteria have a flagella
that act like propellers moving
the organism forward.
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Bacteria are classified by their
shape, reaction to being stained,
nutrition and respiration.
Shape of Eubacteria
Coccus
Monococcus
Spirillum
Bacillus
Spiral
Monobacillus
Spiroseta
Diplobacillus
Vibrio
Streptobacillus
Diplococcus
Tetracoccus
Sarkina
Streptococcus
Staphylococcus
Bacterial Cell Shape
Bacteria can be classified by shape.
-A spherical cell is called a coccus (pl. cocci)
-A rod-shaped cell is called a bacillus (pl. bacilli)
-A spiral-shaped cell is called a spirillum (pl. spirilla)
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Cocci living as separate cells are called
monococci, pairs are called diplococci, chains
are called streptococci, and grapelike clusters
are called staphlococci.
Bacilli also exist as single cells, pairs
(diplobacilli), or chains (streptobacilli).
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Spiral bacteria exist only as single cells.
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Staining bacteria results in two forms: grampositive (purple) vs. gram negative (pink).
Grouping
 Diplo-
Pairs
 Streptos- Chains
 Staphylo- Clusters
http://genome.microbio.uab.edu/strep/info/strep5.gif
http://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/00520/gallery/thumbnails/thumb_diplococcus.jpg
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These are the general shapes:
Examples of Spherical-shaped cells
Coccus (sng) , cocci (pl)
Coccus
http://www.uleth.ca/bio/bio1010/Coccus1.jpg
A Group of Two is referred to as:
Diplo…….. This is diplococccus
A Cluster of cells is referred to as:
Staphylo…. This is Staphylococcus
What a slide of Typical coccus looks
like in a microscope.
Streptococcus aurelius
Strep Throat
Staph Infection
Rod-shaped cells
Bacillus (sng) , Bacilli (pl)
Typical Bacillus
Bacillus
Typical Bacillus in a Microscope
Spiral-shaped cells
Spirillum (sng) , Spirlli (pl)
Spirochetes
Struktur dan Fungsi Utama Sel Bakteri
Dinding Sel
DNA
Membran
Plasma
Sitoplasma
Struktur dan
Fungsi Sel
Granula
Penyimpanan
Kapsul
Flagelum
Pilus
Klorosom
Vakuola Gas
Struktur Utama Bakteri
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Membran Plasma
tersusun atas fosfolipid dan protein,
bersifat semipermeable.
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Dinding Sel
tersusun atas mukopolisakarida dan
peptidoglikan (protein dan polisakarida)
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Sitoplasma
tersusun atas air, asam nukleat, protein,
karbohidrat, lemak.
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Ribosome
sintesis protein
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DNA
materi genetik
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Granula penyimpanan
Struktur Tambahan Bakteri
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Kapsul
tersusun atas polisakarida dan air yang berfungsi untuk
membantu melekat pada permukaan sel bakteri lainnya.
Cth: Streptococcus mutans
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Pertahanan bakteri
Flagellum
Monotrik : flagellum pada bakteri berjumlah
satu
Lofotrik : flagella pada satu sisi
Amfitrik : flagella atau flagellum di kedua ujung
Peritrik : flagella tersebar di seluruh permukaan
sel
Struktur Tambahan Bakteri
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Klorosom
pigmen klorofil untuk proses fotosintesis. Cth:
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Chlorobium.
Vakuola Gas
terdapat pada bakteri yang hidup di air dan
melakukan fotosintesis.
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Endospora
bentuk istirahat/laten bakteri. Cth : Bacillus
antracis, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium
botulinum
Life Cycle
Autotrof
Fotoautotrof
Kemoautotrof
Hetetrof
Saprofit
Parasit
Nutrition
Respiration
Aerob
Anaerob
Gram Positive
Cell Wall
Gram Negative
Facultative Anaerob
Obligat Anaerob
Bakteri Heterotrof
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Bakteri Saprofit
bakteri yang memperoleh makanan dari sisa
organisme lain cth: Eschericia colli,
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Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Bakteri Parasit
bakteri yang memperoleh makanan dari
inangnya. Inang tempat hidup bakteri adalah
tumbuhan, hewan atau manusia.
Cth: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Bakteri Autotrof
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Auto = diri, trophos = memakan
Bakteri yang mampu membuat makanan sendiri.
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Bakteri Fotoautotrof
bakteri yang menggunakan energi cahaya matahari
untuk membuat makanannya. Cth: Thiocytstis sp.
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Bakteri Kemoautotrof
menggunakan energi kimia (proses oksidasi senyawa
anorganik) untuk mensintesis makanannya. Cth:
Nitrosomonas dan Nitrosococcus
Nutrition
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Most eubacteria are heterotrophs and obtain
energy by breaking down organic molecules from
their environment. Some are parasites, absorbing
nutrients from living organisms. Others are
saprobes, decomposing dead organic matter.
Mode of nutrition
Energy Source
Carbon Source
Photoautotroph
Light
Carbon Dioxide
Chemoautotroph
Inorganic Chemicals
Carbon Dioxide
Photoheterotroph
Light
Organic Compounds
Chemoheterotroph
Organic Compounds
Organic Compounds
Bakteri Aerob
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Membutuhkan oksigen bebas untuk
memperoleh energinya. Cth: Nitrosomonas,
Nitrosoccus.
Nitrosomonas : amonia – nitrit
Nitrobacter : nitrit - nitrat
Bakteri Anaerob
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Tidak Membutuhkan oksigen bebas untuk
memperoleh energinya. Energi yang diperoleh
bersumber dari fermentasi.
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Bakteri Anerob Obligat
hanya dapat hidup jika tidak ada oksigen. Cth:
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Clostridium botulinum
Bakteri Anaerob Fakultatif
dapat hidup jika ada oksigen maupun tidak ada
oksigen. Cth : Eschericia colli
Respiration
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If respiration requires oxygen, bacteria are
termed aerobes. If oxygen is absolutely
necessary for survival they are called
obligate aerobes.
Bacteria that carry out respiration without
oxygen are called anaerobes. Presence of
oxygen kills some bacteria and these are
called obligate anaerobes. (example-
Clostridium botulinum)
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Another group of bacteria can survive with
or without oxygen and they are called
facultative anaerobes.
Gram Stain
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A staining method to differentiate bacteria
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Gram-negative refers to the inability to
retain the deep violet dye
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Gram-positive refers to the ability to retain
the deep violet dye
Bakteri berdasarkan Lap.Peptidoglikan
pada Dinding Sel
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Bakteri gram positif
(dinding sel dengan lap.peptidoglikan yang tebal,
berwarna ungu). Cth: Neisseria gonorrhoeae,
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Treponema pallidum, Vibrio cholerae
Bakteri gram negatif
(dinding sel dengan lap.peptidoglikan yang tipis,
berwarna merah muda). Cth: Streptococcus mutans,
Eschericia coli.
Gram Staining
Gram Negative cells
Gram Positive Cells
Bacteria Photos
Clostridium perfringes
Anthrax
Bacteria Photos
E. coli
Clostridium tetani
Bacteria Photos
Neisseria
gonorrhoeae
Staphylococcus aureus
Bacteria Photos
Strep
Reproduction
Asexual
Sexual
• Binary Fission
(pembelahan biner)
• Transformasi
• Konjugasi
• Transduksi
Reproduction
1. By binary fission
• a bacterium may undergo fission every 10-20 minutes
2. Conjugation
• part of a chromosome is transferred from donor cell to
recipient through pilus
3. Transformation
• living cell picks up fragments of DNA released by dead
cells
4. Transduction
• fragments of DNA carried from one cell to another by
viruses
[1] Asexual Reproduction
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Binary Fission – cells grow in size the split in
two…. Genetically identical
[2] Sexual Reproduction (exchanging DNA)
a. Conjugation
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two bacteria join together and exchange
portions of DNA. Ex: E.colli
b. Transformation
DNA is taken in by a bacterium, and then used.
Transduction
DNA is transferred to a bacterium by a
virus.
Endospores
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When
environmental
factors become
harsh, bacteria will
either die or form
endospores.
If bacteria have
time, if the
environmental
changes are slow
enough, they
usually form
endospores.
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When growth conditions
become extremely
unfavourable, many bacteria
form structures called
endospores.
Endospores are DNA and a
small amount of cytoplasm
enclosed in a tough cell wall.
They are resistant to
extremes in temperature,
drying, and harsh chemicals.
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Advantages:
Widely dispersed populations can still reproduce.
 Cells are identical to parents and should survive well
if conditions don't change.
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Disadvantages:
Cells are identical to parents and so are vulnerable to
the same environmental stresses.
 The characteristics of the cells change very slowly
 there is very little innovation in survival strategies.
 Unchanging cells may be slow to take advantage of
new energy sources.
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Classification of Eubacteria
Proteobacteria
Cyanobacteria
Spirochetes
Chlamydias
Proteobacteria
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Proteobacteria bersifat fotoautotrof (bakteri
ungu) : memiliki klorofil, beberapa spesies
merupakan anaerob obligat, hidup di endapan
kolam, danau atau lumpur. Cth: Chromatin
Proteobacteria bersifat kemoheterotrof
Cth: Rhizobium, E.Colli
Cyanobacteria
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Ganggang hijau biru berlendir
Lendir berfungsi membantu gerakan secara meluncur
Ukuran 1-60 miikrometer
Hidup soliter
Pigmen tambahan : fikosianin (biru), fikoeritrin (merah)
Memiliki vakuola gas, fotoautotrof menghasilkan O2
Sexual reproduction :
Asexual reproduction: pembelahan biner, fragmentasi dan
pembentukan spora (akinet)
Ex: Nostoc bersimbiosis dengan jamur – lumut kerak
(lichenes)
Anabaena azollae hidup di daun tumbuhan paku air
Azolla pinata
Cyanobacteria
 are
photosynthetic autotrophs that
produce carbohydrates and oxygen
 tend to cling together in chains or
colonies
 contain enzymes that allow them to
“fix” atmospheric nitrogen
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/graphics/mader07b/online_vrl/images/0510l.jpg
Filamentous: Chain of cells
http://www.spea.indiana.edu/joneswi/e455/Anabaena.jpg
Oscillatoria
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu:16080/images/130/Bacteria/Cyanobacteria/Oscillatoria/Oscillatoria_MC.jpg
Anabaena
_ http://www.bio.mtu.edu/~jkoyadom/algae_webpage/ALGAL_IMAGES/cyanobacteria/Anabaena_jason_dbtow17 2016.jpg
Some filamentous cyanobacteria have Heterocysts,
which are Nitrogen-fixing structures
http://www.people.vcu.edu/~elhaij/IntroBioinf/Scenarios/heterocyst2.JPG
Spirochetes
Berbentuk spiral dengan panjang 5-250
mikrometer
 Bakteri gram negatif
 Ukuran 5-250 miikrometer
 Memiliki filamen aksial
 Habitat : lumpur, air
 Sexual reproduction :
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Treponema pallidum
Archaebacteria
Methanogen
Archaebacteria
Thermopile
Halophile
Methanogens
These Archebacteria are
anaerobes. They make
methane (natural gas) as
a waste product. They
are found in swamp
sediments, sewage, and
in buried landfills. In the
future, they could be
used to produce methane
as a byproduct of sewage
treatment or landfill
operation.
Methanogen
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H2 digunakan untuk mereduksi CO2 menjadi
metana (CH4)
Bakteri anaerob
Habitat : lumpur dan rawa
Berperan sebagai pengurai
Beberapa species bakteri metanogen hidup di
lingkungan anerobik di dalam perut hewan
Halophiles
These are salt-loving Archaebacteria that
grow in salt ponds. Large numbers of
certain halophiles can turn these waters a
dark pink. Pink halophiles contain a
pigment very similar to the rhodopsin in
the human retina. They use this visual
pigment for a type of photosynthesis that
does not produce oxygen. Halophiles are
aerobes.
Extreme halophiles can live in extremely salty environments. Most are
photosynthetic autotrophs. The photosynthesizers in this category are
purple because instead of using chlorophyll to photosynthesize, they use a
similar pigment called bacteriorhodopsin that uses all light except for
purple light, making the cells appear purple.
Halofil Ekstrim
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Hidup di tempat yang salinitasnya tinggi
(halo = garam, philos=pecinta)
Pecinta garam atau hidup di tempat yang
memiliki salinitas yang tinggi
Cth : di danau air asin, laut mati
Ex: Halobacterium salinarium
 Koloni halofil membentuk buih berwarna
merah ungu yang dihasilkan oleh pigmen
rhodopsin. Pigmen ini menangkap cahaya.
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Thermophiles
These are Archaebacteria from hot springs and
other high temperature environments. Some can
grow above the boiling temperature of water.
They are anaerobes, performing anaerobic
respiration.
Thermophiles are interesting because they
contain genes for heat-stable enzymes that may
be of great value in industry and medicine. An
example is taq polymerase, the gene for which
was isolated from a collection of Thermus
aquaticus in a Yellowstone Park hot spring.
Annual sales of taq polymerase are roughly half
a billion dollars.
Termofil
Hidup pada suhu yang ekstrim panas
dengan suhu optimum 60-80 C.
 Bakteri ini hidup dengan mengoksidasi
sulfur
 Ex : Sulfolobus sp yang menempati mata
air panas sulfur di Yellowstone National
Park,USA
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Bahan Diskusi
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Dalam
klasifikasi
sebelumnya,
Cyanobacteria disebut juga ganggang
hijau biru dan tidak dikelompokkan ke
dalam bakteri. Berikan alasan mengapa
Cyanobacteria dipisahkan dari bakteri.
Mengapa dalam klasifikasi sekarang
Cyanobacteria
dikelompokkan
ke
dalam bakteri ?
Jawaban
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Tubuh monoselluler/multiselluler
Memiliki ribosom
Prokariotik
Terdapat pigmen fikosianin dalam membran
tilakoid
Tidak mengandung plastida dan RE
DISADVANTAGE
Bacterial Diseases
 Anthrax
 Botulism
 Lyme
Disease
 Salmonella
 Tetanus
 Tooth decay
 Tuberculosis
Eubacteria
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Clostridium botulinum (pembusukan
makanan)
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TBC)
Vibrio cholerae ( penyakit kolera)
Clostridium tetani (tetanus)
Mycobacterium leprae (penyebab lepra)
Bacillus anthracis (antraks pada sapi)
Agrobacterium tumefaciens (tumor pada
tumbuhan)
Archaebacteria
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Merusak makanan yang telah diawetkan
dengan garam
The role of bacteria in the Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen-fixation
 some
soil bacteria live in the ground
and take in Nitrogen from the
surroundings.
 the
Nitrogen is combined with oxygen
to form nitrites and nitrates. Plants use
the nitrates and nitrites to make
proteins.
Denitrification
 some
soil bacteria break down
the nitrogen compounds and
release the nitrogen back into the
environment.
 plants
could not live without
Nitrogen-fixing and Denitrifying
bacteria.
Examples of Symbiotic
Relationships
 Mutualism
– E. coli in the intestines of
mammals aid in digestion.
 Parasitism
– some bacteria are
parasites. They live in a host and
eventually overpopulate. As they do
they use the host’s food and water, and
eventually they starve the tissues.
Beneficial Uses/Effects
 chemical
recyclers (Nitrogen Cycle)
 the production of HGH, Insulin, Etc.,
through Genetic Engineering
 oil spill cleanup
 synthesis of Vitamins in your intestines
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Other Bacteria live symbiotically in the guts of
animals or elsewhere in their bodies.
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For example, bacteria in your gut produce
vitamin K which is essential to blood clot
formation.
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Still other Bacteria live
on the roots of certain
plants, converting
nitrogen into a usable
form.
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Bacteria put the tang in
yogurt and the sour in
sourdough bread.
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Saprobes help to break
down dead organic
matter.
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Bacteria make up the
base of the food web in
many environments.
Streptococcus thermophilus in yogurt
Penanggulangan Bakteri
 Pengawetan
dan Pengolahan Makanan
 Kebersihan dan Kesehatan Diri serta
Lingkungan
 Imunisasi
STAINING PROCESS
In Gram-positive bacteria, the purple crystal violet stain is
trapped by the layer of peptidoglycan which forms the outer
layer of the cell. In Gram-negative bacteria, the outer
membrane of lipopolysaccharides prevents the stain from
reaching the peptidoglycan layer. The outer membrane is then
permeabilized by acetone treatment, and the pink safranin
counterstain is trapped by the peptidoglycan layer.
The Gram stain has four steps:
 1. crystal violet, the primary stain: followed by
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2. iodine, which acts as a mordant by forming a
crystal violet-iodine complex, then
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3. alcohol, which decolorizes, followed by
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4. safranin, the counterstain.
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Gram staining tests the bacterial cell wall's ability to
retain crystal violet dye during solvent treatment.
Safranin is added as a mordant to form the crystal
violet/safranin complex in order to render the dye
impossible to remove.
Ethyl-alcohol solvent acts as a decolorizer and dissolves
the lipid layer from gram-negative cells. This enhances
leaching of the primary stain from the cells into the
surrounding solvent.
Ethyl-alcohol will dehydrate the thicker gram-positive
cell walls, closing the pores as the cell wall shrinks.
For this reason, the diffusion of the crystal violetsafranin staining is inhibited, so the bacteria remain
stained.