Transcript LO 11.1 - Images

Psychology
CHAPTER
5
Development
Across the Life
Span
Module 11
Topics in Development
Learning Objectives
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LO 11.1
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LO 11.2
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LO 11.3
LO 11.4
How do biological and environmental factors influence
development?
What are some major research issues in developmental
psychology?
How do psychologists study development?
What are critical periods and sensitive periods?
Developmental Research Designs
LO 11.1
How do biological and environmental factors influence development?
• Human development - the scientific
study of the changes that occur in
people as they age from conception
until death.
Nature versus Nurture
LO 11.1
How do biological and environmental factors influence development?
• Nature - the influence of our inherited
characteristics on our personality,
physical growth, intellectual growth,
and social interactions.
• Nurture - the influence of the
environment on personality, physical
growth, intellectual growth, and social
interactions.
Genetics Influences
LO 11.1
How do biological and environmental factors influence development?
• Chromosome - tightly wound strand of
genetic material or DNA.
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - special
molecule that contains the genetic
material of the organism.
Genetics Influences
LO 11.1
How do biological and environmental factors influence development?
• Gene - section of DNA having the same
arrangement of chemical elements.
– Recessive - referring to a gene that actively
controls the expression of a trait.
– Dominant - referring to a gene that only
influences the expression of a trait when
paired with an identical gene.
Figure 11.1 DNA Molecule
The rungs of this twisted ladderlike structure are the amines that carry the genetic codes for building the proteins that
make up life.
Human Development
LO 11.2
What are some major research issues in developmental psychology?
• Continuity or discontinuity?
– Does development happen in a smooth,
continuous progression, or in a series of
clear-cut stages?
• Stability or change?
– What remains stable over the course of
human development, and what changes?
Developmental Psychology
LO 11.2
What are some major research issues in developmental psychology?
• Physical Development - tightly wound
strand of genetic material or DNA.
• Cognitive development - development
of thinking and reasoning skills such as
problem solving and memory.
Developmental Psychology
LO 11.2
What are some major research issues in developmental psychology?
• Psychosocial development - affecting
our emotional and social lives.
– Temperament - a child's innate personality
and emotional characteristics, observable
in infancy; the enduring characteristics
with which each person is born.
– Attachment - the first emotional bond a
child forms with its primary caretaker.
Developmental Research Designs
LO 11.3
How do psychologists study development?
• Longitudinal design - research design in
which one participant or group of
participants is studied over a long
period of time.
• Cross-sectional design - research
design in which several different age
groups of participants are studied at
one particular point in time.
Developmental Research Designs
LO 11.3
How do psychologists study development?
• Cross-sequential design - research
design in which participants are first
studied by means of a cross-sectional
design but also followed and assessed
for a period of no more than six years.
Childhood Development
LO 11.4
What are critical periods and sensitive periods?
• Critical Period - a time when a child is
developmentally most susceptible to
the presence or absence of particular
stimuli in the environment and must
progress to the next stage of
development if development is to
continue normally.
Childhood Development
LO 11.4
What are critical periods and sensitive periods?
• Sensitive Period - a time when a child is
susceptible to stimuli and receptive to
learning from particular types of
experiences.
Module 12
Prenatal, Infant and Childhood
Development
Learning Objectives
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LO 12.1
LO 12.2
LO 12.3
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LO 12.4
LO 12.5
LO 12.6
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LO 12.7
How do humans develop from conception through birth?
What reflexes and abilities do newborns have?
What kinds of physical changes take place in infancy
and childhood?
How do infants and children develop cognitive skills?
What are the stages of language development?
How do babies begin to develop relationships with
others?
How do children develop socially and emotionally?
Genetics and Development
LO 12.1
How do humans develop from conception through birth?
• Conception - the moment at which a
female becomes pregnant.
• Ovum - the female sex cell, or egg.
• Fertilization - the union of the ovum
and sperm.
• Zygote - cell resulting from the uniting
of the ovum and sperm; divides into
many cells, eventually forming the
baby.
Conception and Twins
LO 12.1
How do humans develop from conception through birth?
• Monozygotic twins - identical twins
formed when one zygote splits into two
separate masses of cells, each of which
develops into a separate embryo.
• Dizygotic twins - often called fraternal
twins, occurring when two eggs each
get fertilized by two different sperm,
resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at
the same time.
Figure 12.1 Identical and Fraternal Twins
Identical twins are the same sex and look exactly alike because they come from a single fertilized egg that splits. They
are also called monozygotic twins (“mono” means “one”). Fraternal twins may be of different sexes and do not look as
much alike because they come from different eggs. They are also called dizygotic twins (“di” means “two”).
Periods of Pregnancy
LO 12.1
How do humans develop from conception through birth?
• Germinal period - first two weeks after
fertilization, during which the zygote
moves down to the uterus and begins
to implant in the lining.
Periods of Pregnancy
LO 12.1
How do humans develop from conception through birth?
• Embryonic period - the period from two
to eight weeks after fertilization, during
which the major organs and structures
of the organism develop.
– Teratogen - any factor that can cause a
birth defect.
• Fetal period - the time from about eight
weeks after conception until the birth of
the child.
Table 12.1 Common Teratogens
Prenatal Development
LO 12.1
How do humans develop from conception through birth?
• Uterus - the muscular organ that will
contain and protect the developing
infant.
• Placenta - a specialized organ that
develops out of fetal tissue, providing
nourishment and filtering away waste
products.
• Umbilical cord - cord that connects the
baby to the placenta and implants itself
in the uterine wall.
Prenatal Development
LO 12.1
How do humans develop from conception through birth?
• Embryo - name for the developing
organism from 2 weeks to 8 weeks
after fertilization.
• Fetus - name for the developing
organism from 8 weeks after
fertilization to the birth of the baby.
Figure 12.2
Stages of Prenatal Development
Reflexes and Abilities
LO 12.2
What reflexes and abilities do newborns have?
• Four critical areas of adjustment for the
newborn are:
– Respiration
– Digestion
– Circulation
– Temperature regulation
Reflexes and Abilities
LO 12.2
What reflexes and abilities do newborns have?
• Infants are born with reflexes that help
the infant survive: sucking, rooting,
Moro (startle), grasping, and Babinski.
• The senses, except for vision, are fairly
well developed at birth.
Figure 12.3 Five Newborn Reflexes
Shown here are five reflexes used to make sure the newborn's nervous system is healthy. These include (a) the
grasping reflex, (b) the startle or Moro reflex, (c) the rooting reflex, in which a baby whose cheek is touched will turn
toward the hand, open its mouth, and begin searching for the nipple (continued on next slide)
Figure 12.3 (continued) Five Newborn Reflexes
(d) the stepping reflex, and (e) the sucking reflex.
Physical Development in Infancy
and Childhood
LO 12.3
What kinds of physical changes take place in infancy and childhood?
• Gross and fine motor skills develop at a
fast pace during infancy and early
childhood.
• Nutrition, care, and health affect
development.
– Importance of immunizations.
• Muscle strength and coordination
improve around age 10-12.
Figure 12.4 Six Motor Milestones
Typical milestones in motor development are shown here: (a) raising head and chest—2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—
2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support—4 to 6 months (continued on next slide)
Figure 12.4 (continued) Six Motor Milestones
(d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to 18 months.
Cognitive Development
LO 12.4
How do infants and children develop cognitive skills?
• Cognitive development - the
development of thinking, problem
solving, and memory scheme (plural
schemas) a mental concept formed
through experiences with objects and
events.
Cognitive Development
LO 12.4
How do infants and children develop cognitive skills?
• Piaget's belief - children form mental
schemes as they experience new
situations and events.
– Assimilation - in this case, the process of
trying to understand new things in terms of
schemes one already possesses.
– Accommodation - in this case, the process
of altering or adjusting old schemes to fit
new information and experiences.
Piaget's Stage Theory
LO 12.4
How do infants and children develop cognitive skills?
• Sensorimotor stage - Piaget's first
stage of cognitive development in
which the infant uses its senses and
motor abilities to interact with objects
in the environment.
– Object permanence - the knowledge that
an object exists even when it is not in
sight.
Piaget's Stage Theory
LO 12.4
How do infants and children develop cognitive skills?
• Preoperational stage - Piaget's second
stage of cognitive development in
which the preschool child learns to use
language as a means of exploring the
world.
Piaget's Stage Theory
LO 12.4
How do infants and children develop cognitive skills?
• Preoperational stage (continued)
– Egocentrism - the inability to see the world
through anyone else's eyes.
– Centration - in Piaget's theory, the
tendency of a young child to focus only on
one feature of an object while ignoring
other relevant features.
Piaget's Stage Theory
LO 12.4
How do infants and children develop cognitive skills?
• Preoperational stage (continued)
– Conservation - in Piaget's theory, the
ability to understand that simply changing
the appearance of an object does not
change the object's nature.
Figure 12.5 Measuring Conservation Skills
Experimenters often measure children's conservation skills by pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the
same size and shape. When the water from one glass is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children incorrectly
assume that the second glass has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two
equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are then spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will assume that
there are actually more pennies in that line.
Piaget's Stage Theory
LO 12.4
How do infants and children develop cognitive skills?
• Concrete operations stage - third stage
of cognitive development in which the
school-age child becomes capable of
logical thought processes but is not yet
capable of abstract thinking.
• Formal operations - Piaget's last stage
of cognitive development in which the
adolescent becomes capable of abstract
thinking.
Table 12.2 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
Current Theory
LO 12.5
What are the stages of language development?
• Child-directed speech – children attend
to higher pitched, repetitious, singsong speech.
• Expressive language delay - the
apparent ability of infants to
understand far more language than
they can produce.
Stages of Language Development
LO 12.5
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What are the stages of language development?
Cooing
Babbling
One-word speech (holophrases)
Telegraphic speech
Whole sentences
Attachment
LO 12.6
How do babies begin to develop relationships with others?
• Attachment - the emotional bond
between an infant and the primary
caregiver.
– Secure - willing to explore, upset when
mother departs but easily soothed upon
her return.
– Avoidant – unattached; explore without
“touching base.”
Attachment
LO 12.6
How do babies begin to develop relationships with others?
• Attachment (continued)
– Ambivalent - insecurely attached; upset
when mother leaves and then angry with
mother upon her return.
– Disorganized-disoriented – insecurely
attached and sometimes abused or
neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and
depressed.
Erikson's First Four Stages
LO 12.7
How do children develop socially and emotionally?
• Eight stages of social development in
total.
• First four stages take place in infancy
or childhood.
– Each represents an emotional crisis or
turning point.
Erikson's First Four Stages
LO 12.7
How do children develop socially and emotionally?
• Trust versus mistrust - first stage of
personality development in which the
infant's basic sense of trust or mistrust
develops as a result of consistent or
inconsistent care.
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt second stage of personality
development in which the toddler
strives for physical independence.
Erikson's First Four Stages
LO 12.7
How do children develop socially and emotionally?
• Initiative versus guilt - third stage of
personality development in which the
preschool-aged child strives for
emotional and psychological
independence and attempts to satisfy
curiosity about the world.
Erikson's First Four Stages
LO 12.7
How do children develop socially and emotionally?
• Industry versus inferiority - fourth
stage of personality development in
which the adolescent strives for a sense
of competence and self-esteem.
Module 13
Adolescence and Adulthood
Learning Objectives
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LO 13.1
LO 13.2
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LO 13.3
LO 13.4
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LO 13.5
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LO 13.6
LO 13.7
LO 13.8
What physical changes happen during adolescence?
How do reasoning and morality develop during
adolescence?
How do adolescents form their identities?
What role do family members and peers play in
adolescent development?
What social and cognitive changes occur during
adulthood?
What physical changes happen during adulthood?
How do scientists explain why aging occurs?
What are the stages of death and dying?
Puberty and Adolescence
LO 13.1
What physical changes happen during adolescence?
• Adolescence - the period of life from
about age 13 to the early twenties,
during which a young person is no
longer physically a child but is not yet
an independent, self-supporting adult.
• Puberty - the physical changes that
occur in the body as sexual
development reaches its peak.
– Period of about four years.
Egocentric Thinking
LO 13.2
How do reasoning and morality develop during adolescence?
• Personal fable - type of thought
common to adolescents in which young
people believe themselves to be unique
and protected from harm.
Egocentric Thinking
LO 13.2
How do reasoning and morality develop during adolescence?
• Imaginary audience - type of thought
common to adolescents in which young
people believe that other people are
just as concerned about the
adolescent's thoughts and
characteristics as they themselves are.
Development of Morality
LO 13.2
How do reasoning and morality develop during adolescence?
• Preconventional morality - first level of
Kohlberg's stages of moral
development in which the child's
behavior is governed by the
consequences of the behavior.
• Conventional morality - second level of
Kohlberg's stages of moral
development in which the child's
behavior is governed by conforming to
the society's norms of behavior.
Development of Morality
LO 13.2
How do reasoning and morality develop during adolescence?
• Postconventional morality - third level
of Kohlberg's stages of moral
development in which the person's
behavior is governed by moral
principles that have been decided on by
the individual and which may be in
disagreement with accepted social
norms.
Table 13.1 Kohlberg's Three Levels of Morality
Erikson's Fifth Stage
LO 13.3
How do adolescents form their identities?
• Identity versus role confusion - stage of
personality development in which the
adolescent must find a consistent sense
of self.
Adolescent Development
LO 13.4
What role do family members and peers play in adolescent development?
• Parent/teen conflict
– Conflict with parents may encourage
independence.
• Peer pressure
– Adolescents without a strong sense of self
are vulnerable to peer pressure.
Erikson's Theories of Adulthood
LO 13.5
What social and cognitive changes occur during adulthood?
• Intimacy - an emotional and
psychological closeness that is based
on the ability to trust, share, and care,
while still maintaining a sense of self.
• Generativity - providing guidance to
one's children or the next generation,
or contributing to the well-being of the
next generation through career or
volunteer work.
Erikson's Theories of Adulthood
LO 13.5
What social and cognitive changes occur during adulthood?
• Ego integrity - sense of wholeness that
comes from having lived a full life and
the ability to let go of regrets; the final
completion of the ego.
Adulthood Cognitive Changes
LO 13.5
What social and cognitive changes occur during adulthood?
• Intellectual abilities do not decline
overall.
• Perception and reaction time slows.
Physical Changes and Aging
LO 13.6
What physical changes happen during adulthood?
• Adulthood begins in the early twenties.
– Changes occur in one's 30s, 40s, 50s, and
later.
• Menopause - the cessation of ovulation
and menstrual cycles and the end of a
woman's reproductive capability.
• Andropause - gradual changes in the
sexual hormones and reproductive
system of males.
Physical Changes and Aging
LO 13.6
What physical changes happen during adulthood?
• Effects of aging on health:
– Hereditary and lifestyle factors
– Increase in health problems
 High blood pressure
 Skin cancer
 Heart problems
 Arthritis
 Obesity
Theories of Aging
LO 13.7
How do scientists explain why aging occurs?
• Cellular clock theory - based on the
idea that cells only have so many times
that they can reproduce; once that limit
is reached, damaged cells begin to
accumulate.
• Wear-and-tear theory - as time goes
by, repeated use and abuse of the
body's tissues cause it to be unable to
repair all the damage.
Theories of Aging
LO 13.7
How do scientists explain why aging occurs?
• Free radical theory - oxygen molecules
with an unstable electron move around
the cell, damaging cell structures as
they go.
• Activity theory - theory of adjustment
to aging that assumes older people are
happier if they remain active in some
way, such as volunteering or
developing a hobby.
Stages of Death and Dying
LO 13.8
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Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
What are the stages of death and dying?
Death and Dying
LO 13.8
What are the stages of death and dying?
• Many associate death with old age.
• Death can happen at any time.