Transcript AP biology review for exam

AP biology review for exam
Chemistry
• 1. Describe the 3 subatomic particles of an
atom.
• 2. List 3 types of chemical bonds, how they
form and their relative strengths. We have not
discussed Van der Waals bonds-they are the
weakest.
• 3. Draw 2 water molecules and identify the
hydrogen bond and the covalent bonds.
Chemistry
• 4. How is hydrogen bonding important to the
unique properties of water? How is “polarity”
of water important?
• 5. Interpret a pH scale.
• 6. How can changes in pH alter biological
molecules? Biological systems?
• 7. Why are buffers important to biological
systems? Ecosystems? Name a buffer or two.
Carbon
• 1. What are the properties of carbon that
make it so important to biological systems?
• 2. Describe how carbon cycles through the
ecosystem and biological systems.
Biological molecules
• 1. Distinguish between dehydration synthesis
and hydrolysis. What is the importance?
• 2. List the 4 organic molecule groups and the
elements contained in each. What functional
groups or formulas could be used to recognize
each group?
Biological molecules
• 3. How are each of the 4 organic groups
utilized by cells? In other words, what are
some of their functions?
• 4. Describe the 4 levels of protein structure.
• What sorts of changes can alter structure?
• 5. How does a protein reach its final folding?
The cell
• 1. Identify 3 key differences between
eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
• 2. Identify the general structure & function of
each cell organelle.
• 3. How do the organelles of plants and
animals differ? How are they similar?
Membranes
• 1. Explain selective permeability. How can this
happen? Why is this important?
• 2. Identify and describe the roles of
phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates in
membranes.
• 3. Distinguish between isotonic, hypotonic and
hypertonic solutions. Predict water movement.
Membranes
• 4. What are electrochemical gradients? Where
might you find one? What can they do?
Metabolism
• 1. Distinguish between endergonic and
exergonic reactions. Draw a graph of these
reactions.
• 2. How is ATP used in energy coupling
reactions?
• 3. What are enzymes? How do they lower
activation energy?
Metabolism
• 4. Explain enzyme structure and relationship
to substrate.
• 5. What factors influence enzyme activity?
Cell Cycle
• 1. Terms/structure of duplicated chromosome.
• 2. Cell cycle and stages of mitosis.
• 3. What is the role of kinases and cyclins in the
cell cycle?
• 4. What is the role of mitosis in organisms?
Cellular respiration
• 1. Write the equation for respiration.
• 2. What is the difference b/n fermentation &
• Cellular respiration?
• 3. Explain glycolysis.
• 4. Explain Krebs cycle.
• 5. Explain the electron transport chain and
chemiosmosis.
Photosynthesis
• 1. Write the equation of photosynthesis.
• 2. Relate the anatomy of a leaf and chloroplast to photosynthesis.
• 3. Explain the photosystems and how electrons are moved.
• 4. What is the relationship of the light reaction to the light
independent reaction?
• 5. How does chemiosmosis generate ATP?
• 6. Explain the Calvin Cycle.
DNA
• 1. Describe DNA structure. Draw it.
• 2. Describe the contributions of: Avery/Macleod,
Hershey/Chase, Franklin, Watson/Crick
• 3. Explain DNA replication.
• 4. Compare prokaryotic to eukaryotic cells’
chromosomes.
• 5. How does DNA packaging effect transcription?
• 6. What is transcription and translation?
Meiosis & Life Cycles
• 1. Distinguish between sexual and asexual
reproduction.
• 2. What is the role of meiosis and fertilization in
sexually reproducing organisms?
• 3. What are homologous chromosomes? Their
importance?
• 4. Describe the process of meiosis.
• 5. Contrast mitosis and meiosis.
• 6. What is the importance of crossover?
Independent assortment? Random fertilization?
Cell communication
• 1. List the 3 steps of cell communication:
• 2. How is cell transduction started? Discuss G
protein receptors and G proteins.
• 3. How are kinase receptors different from G
protein receptors?
• 4. How is a cell signal amplified?
• 5. Provide an example of a cell signal that
results in the turning on of a gene and thus
the production of a protein.
Gene regulation
• 1. Identify the 3 parts of an operon.
• 2. What is the role of repressor genes?
• 3. What is DNA methylation? Histone
acetylation?
• 4. How does gene regulation effect embryonic
development? Cancer?
Protein synthesis
• 1. What is gene expression? Transcription?
Translation?
• 2. Describe trancription & translation.
• 3. How is RNA modified after transcription?
• 4. Describe the APE sites on the ribosomes.
• 5. How do mutations change protein
structure?
• 6. How does RNA differ from DNA?
• 7. Explain the direction of transcription.
• 8. What is the start codon of all protein
sequences?
• 9. What is a ribosome made of?
• 10. What are peptide bonds? How do they
form?
• 11. Why do amino acids have more than one
codon?
• 12. Where do proteins go for “packaging”?
• 13. Explain how so many proteins can be
made from so few “genes”.
Biotechnology
• 1. How can you get a gene of interest into a
cell? What are restriction enzymes? From
what organism do they come?
• 2. What is PCR? Why is it important to the
field of biotechnology?
• 3. What is gel electrophoresis? What can you
find out?
Biotechnology
• 4. Make sure you can “read” a set of petri dish
results when dealing with genetic engineering
lab.
Mendel & genetics
• 1. Terms: P, F1, F2, dominant, recessive,
homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype,
genotype
• 2. Compare and contrast allele and gene.
• 3. Set up Punnett squares and Pedigrees.
Chromosomes
• 1. What is the chromosomal theory of
inheritance?
• 2. Explain sex linked inheritance.
• 3. Explain chromosomal deletions,
duplications, inversions.
• 4. Exceptions to Mendelian inheritance:
• Genomic imprinting, mitochondrial DNA
Viruses
• 1. Describe viral structure.
• 2. Compare the lytic to lysogenic cycle.
Genomes & their evolution
• 1. How do prokaryotic genomes compare to
eukaryotic genomes?
• 2. What is the role of transposable elements
and retrotransposons?
• 3. What is the idea of “evo-devo”?
• 4. What is the role of homeotic genes and
homeoboxes?
Descent with modification
• 1. How did Lamarck’s view differ from Darwin?
• 2. List several examples of evidence of
evolution.
• 3. Distinguish the terms analogous &
homologous .
• 4. Provide examples of adaptations, variation,
time, reproductive success and inheritance in
terms of evolution.
Populations and evolution
• 1. Provide examples of how mutation and
sexual reproduction produces genetic
variation.
• 2. Be able to work problems for HardyWeinberg equilibrium.
• 3. What are the conditions for HW
equilibrium.
Origin of species
• 1. Define species (biological concept).
• 2. Distinguish b/n pre & post zygotic barriers
that maintain population isolation.
• 3. How are allopatric & sympatric speciation
similar and different? Provide examples.
• 4. Compare punctuated equilibrium &
gradualism.
Earth’s history
• 1. What are some theories about the origin of
the Earth?
• 2. How old is the Earth? When did prokaryotic
life emerge? Eukaryotic life?
• 3. What were conditions of early earth?
• 4. Describe the labs of Miller & Urey…and
Oparin & Haldane.
• 5. How can fossils be dated?
• 6. What is endosymbiosis? Evidence?
• 7. How does continental drift account for the
distribution of species? Examples?
• 8. How is extinction related to adaptive
radiation?
Phylogeny
• 1. Describe the various domains and common
traits.
• 2. Classification system… know it.
• 3. Read a cladogram.
Bacteria and Archae
• 1. How do prokaryotes differ from
eukaryotes?
• 2. How do bacteria get genetic diversity?
Transport in vascular plants
• 1. Distinguish b/n active and passive
transport.
• 2. How does diffusion, active transport and
bulk flow move water and nutrients?
• 3. Explain how water traits are related to the
movement of water through a plant and
transpired out stomata.
• 4. Explain the pressure-flow hypothesis of
translocating sugars.
Plant signals
• 1. List the 3 steps of cell communication.
• 2. What are auxins? Their role?
• 3. Describe photoperiodism and phototropism
as a response to environmental change.
• 4. How do plants respond to herbivores and
pathogens?
Homeostasis
• 1. Provide several examples of homeostasis.
• One negative feedback and one positive
feedback.
Immune system
• 1. Describe the innate immune response.
• 2. Distinguish between B and T cells.
• 3. How are antigens recognized by immune
system cells?
• 4. What is the difference b/n humoral and cell
mediated immunity?
• 5. Why are helper T cells crucial to immune
system?
Hormones & endocrine system
• 1. How do hormones bind to target receptors?
Are these related to transduction pathways?
• 2. Provide a specific example of the secretion,
target, action and regulation of a hormone.
• 3. How are these hormones responsible for
positive and negative feedback?
Neurons
• 1. Draw a neuron and label.
• 2. Explain the impulse transmission along a
neuron.
• 3. Explain the process of releasing a
neurotransmitter and what happens at the
synapse.
• 7. What is apoptosis? Why is it important to
normal functioning of multicellular
organisms?
Nervous system
• 1. Describe the different regions of the brain
and their functions.
• 2. How does the vertebrate brain integrate
information?
Sensory/motor
• 1. Explain the contraction of a muscle cell.
Animal behavior
• 1. How are behaviors a result of natural
selection?
• 2. How does an innate behavior and other
behaviors increase “fitness”?
• 3. How do organisms communicate to increase
fitness?
• 4. Describe several forms of animal
communication.
• 5. What is the role of altruism?
The biosphere
• 1. Describe the abiotic factors determining
biomes.
• 2. How are biomes similar?
• 3. What changes are occurring that could alter
biomes and their ecosystems within?
Population ecology
• 1. Describe these terms related to
populations: density, dispersion,
demographics
• 2. Distinguish b/n exponential and logistic
growth models.
• 3. Explain the difference b/n density
dependent and density independent factors
controlling populations.
Community ecology
• 1. Distinguish b/n fundamental and realized
niche.
• 2. What is competitive exclusion principle?
Provide an example.
• 3. Know examples of : mutualism, parasitism and
commensalism (symbiotic relationships)
• 4. What is a keystone species? Provide an
example.
• 5. Distinguish b/n primary & secondary
succession.
Ecosystems
• 1. Describe how energy flows through an
ecosystem in food chains and food webs.
• 2. Distinguish b/n gross primary productivity
and net primary productivity.
• 3. Describe the carbon cycle and the nitrogen
cycle in detail. What is their importance to
life?
Global change
• 1. Describe the importance of biodiversity.
• 2. Identify several human activities that are
threatening biodiversity.
Averages/Means
Initial mass of pumpkin cores was measured in
grams. What is the average initial mass for the
pumpkin cores? Round to the nearest one-hundredth.
29.15, 28.45, 30.92, 29.25, 32.09, 31.67.
Standard deviation/error
Grasshoppers in Madagascar show variation in their
back-leg length. Given the following data, determine the
standard deviation and standard error for this data.
Length in cm: 2.0, 2.2, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 2.4 and 2.5
Chi-square practice
In pea plants, smooth seeds are dominant to wrinkled, and
purple flowers are dominant to white.
In a dihybrid cross where a 9:3:3:1 ratio is expected, the
following data was collected. Smooth and Purple= 223,
Smooth and White= 84, Wrinkled and Purple= 89, Wrinkled
and White= 33.
Determine the chi-square value.
Chi-square continued
Two Wisconsin fast plants are crossed. One has the
recessive dwarf trait, but the normal pigment anthocyanin,
while the other has the recessive anthocyaninless trait, but
is on normal height. Their offspring consist of 89 plants of
normal height and pigment; 93 anthocyaninless plants and
normal height; 96 dwarf plants and normal pigment; and 94
anthocyaninless, dwarf plants. A student proposes that the
parent plants’ genotype must have been ddAa for the dwarf
parent and Ddaa for the anthocyaninless parent.
Calculate, to the nearest 0.01, the chi square value that
would be used to confirm this hypothesis.
Chi square continued
The following data were collected from a population of fruit flies. In this
monohybrid cross where red eyes are dominant to white, determine the
chi square value.
Hardy-Weinberg practice
Consider a population of pigs where B = tan pigs
and b= black pigs. We can use HardyWeinberg to determine the percent of the pig
population that is heterozygous for tan and so
arrive at the frequency of the two coat color
alleles.
In a pig population there are 4 black
pigs and 12 tan pigs.
1. Calculate q2.
2. Calculate q.
4/16 = .25
Square root of .25 = .5
3. Calculate p.
p +q = 1 so 1 - .5 = .5 p
4. Calculate 2pq
2 x (pq) = 2 x .25 = .50
Hardy-Weinberg
If 250 people out of a population of 1,000 are
born with sickle-cell anemia, how many
people in the population will be more resistant
to malaria because they are heterozygous for
the sickle-cell gene?
Hardy-Weinberg continued
In a population of 250 peas, 16% of the peas
are homozygous recessive wrinkled and the
rest are smooth. What is the frequency of
the dominant allele for smooth peas?
Hardy-Weinberg
In a population that is Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the
frequency of the homozygous recessive genotype is 0.09.
What is the p and q value for this population?
What is the frequency of individuals that are
homozygous for the dominant trait?
What is the frequency of individuals that show the
dominant trait?
Hardy-Weinberg
A census of birds nesting on a Galapagos Island
revealed that 24 of them show a rare recessive condition
that affected beak formation. The other 63 birds in this
population show no beak defect. If this population is in
HW equilibrium, what is the frequency of the dominant
allele? Give your answer to the nearest hundredth.
Biotic potential/population
calculations
There are 2,000 mice living in a field. If 1,000 mice are
born each month and 200 mice die each month, what is
the per capita growth rate of mice over a month?
Biotic potential/population
problems
As N approaches K for a certain population, what is predicted by the logistic
equation?
Population problems
In 2009, the US had a population of about 307 million
people. If there were 14 births and 8 deaths per 1000
people, what was the country’s net population growth that
year (ignoring immigration and emigration)?
Population problems
Water potential
Scientists are trying to determine under what conditions a
plant can survive. They collect the following data and would
like to know the water potential of the plant cell. The solute
potential is -0.6 MPa and the pressure potential is -1.0
MPa. What is the water potential?
Temperature coefficient
Gibbs free energy
A chemical reaction is most likely to occur spontaneously if the
a) Free energy is negative
b) Entropy change is negative
c) Activation energy is positive
d) Heat of reaction is positive
Gibbs free energy
A reaction will be spontaneous if it results in products that have
a) Lower potential energy and less randomness
b) Lower potential energy and more randomness
c) Greater potential energy and less randomness
d) Greater potential energy and more randomness
Enzyme reaction rates
Hydrogen peroxide is broken down to water and oxygen by
the enzyme catalase. The following data were taken over 5
minutes. What is the rate of enzymatic reaction in mL/min
from 2 to 4 minutes?
Enzyme rates
In a lab experiment, one enzyme is combined with its substrate at time O. The
product is measured in micrograms at 20-second intervals and recorded on the data
table.
a.What is the initial rate of the enzyme reaction?
b.What is the rate after 100 seconds?
c.Why is there no increase in product after 100 seconds?
d.What would happen if you added only more enzymes after 100 seconds?
e. What would happen if you added only more substrate after 100 seconds?
Surface area to volume ratios
Four blocks of phenolphthalein agar are placed in a vinegar solution. Which block
would the vinegar solution penetrate most thoroughly into after ten minutes?
Which block would have the greatest volume of pink phenolphthalein remaining at
the end of ten minutes? Justify your answer mathematically and relate your
predicted results to the surface area of your blocks.
a) Block1: 4cm x 4cm x 4cm
b)Block2: 2cm x 8cm x 4cm
c)Block3: 1cm x 8cm x 8cm
d)Block4: 1cm x 1cm x 64cm
Primary productivity
pH calculations
According to the Acid Rain Monitoring Project at the
University of Mass, the pH measured at King Phillip Brook
on April 10, 2012, was near 5, which the pH measured at
Robbins Pond on that same date was near 9.
Determine to the nearest whole number how many times
greater the hydrogen ion concentration was at King Phillip
Brook.
pH
What is the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution of pH 8?