Transcript fatty acids

Fig. 17.1
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Dairy
Fruits
Grains
Vegetables
Protein
ChooseMyPlate.gov
Fig. 16.23
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Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Mouth
(salivary glands)
Salivary amylase
Polysaccharides, Disaccharides
Stomach
Pepsin
Polypeptides
Duodenum
(pancreas, liver)
Bile salts
(liver)
Pancreatic amylase
Lipase
(pancreas)
Trypsin, chymotrypsin,
carboxypeptidase
(pancreas)
Disaccharides
Peptides
Epithelium of
small intestine
Disaccharidases
Peptidases
Monosaccharides
Fatty acids
Monoglycerides
Amino acids
Fig. 2.12
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H
H C OH
HO
O
H H
C
C C C
O
H C OH
H C OH
H
HO – C
HO
H
H
O
H H H
H H
C C– H
H C O
C
C C C
C C H
H H H
H H
O
H H H
H H
C
C C C
C C H
H H H
H H
O
H H H
H H
C
C C C
C C H
H H H
H H
H H
H H
H H
H
H H
H H
H
Enzymes
C C C
C
C H
H H
H H
H
O
H H
H H
H
C
C C C
H H
C
H H
C– H
H
H C O
3 H2O
H C O
H
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Triglyceride molecule
Fig. 2.15
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CH3
CH
CH3
OH
CH2CH2CH2CH
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
Cholesterol
HO
HO
Estrogen (estradiol)
CH3
OH
CH
CH3
O
CH2CH2
C
O
NH
CH2
C
OH
O–
CH3
CH3
HO
CH3
OH
Bile salt (glycocholate)
O
Testosterone
Fig. 2.14
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Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Polar (hydrophilic) region
(phosphatecontaining region)
Oxygen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nonpolar (hydrophobic) region
(fatty acids)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.13
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HO
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H H H H H H H
Palmitic acid (saturated)
H
H
H
H
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
(a)
HO
Double
bond
Double
bond
Linolenic acid (unsaturated)
(b)
Double
bond
H
Fig. 2.16
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(a) Two examples of amino acids. Each amino
acid has an amine group (—NH2) and a
carboxyl group (—COOH).
Amino acid
(alanine)
H
H
CH3
N
C
C
H
O
H
OH
H
H
N
C
C
H
O
OH
Amino acid
(glycine)
H2O
(b) The individual amino acids are joined.
H
H
H
CH3
N
C
C
H
O
H
H
N
C
C
H
O
OH
H
N
HO
(c) A protein consists of a chain of different
amino acids (represented by differentcolored spheres).
C
H
C
N
C
H
O
C
C
O
H
H
O
C
(d) A three-dimensional representation of the
amino acid chain shows the hydrogen bonds
(dotted red lines) between different amino
acids. The hydrogen bonds cause the amino
acid chain to become folded or coiled.
N
O
C
C
N
H
C
C
C
O
H O
C
N
C
O
H
N
C
C
O
O
H
C
C
N
C
H
N
H O
H
C
N
C
C
N
C
C
N
N
H
H
C
C
O
C
N
N
O
C
H
N
H
O
C
Folded
C
N
N
H
C
O
C
O
H
O
Coiled
C
O
H O
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
(e) An entire protein has a complex
three-dimensional shape.
O
C
H
N
C
C
O
N
Table 17.2
Table 17.3
Fig. 17.3
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1
ATP Production
The energy released during catabolism
can be used to synthesize ATP.
P
Catabolism
Catabolism is the energyreleasing process by which
larger molecules are broken
down to smaller ones.
Ingested food is the source
of molecules used in
catabolic reactions.
P
P
Anabolism
ATP
Energy
Energy
P
P
P
ADP + Pi
2
ATP Breakdown
The energy released from the
breakdown of ATP can be used during
anabolism to synthesize other
molecules and to provide energy for
cellular processes, such as active
transport and muscle contraction.
Anabolism is the energyrequiring process by which
smaller molecules join to
form larger ones. Anabolic
reactions result in the
synthesis of the molecules
necessary for life.
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Fig. 17.6
1
Cytoplasm
Glucose
(six-carbon molecule)
1 Glycolysis
2 ATP
2 NADH
2 pyruvic acid
(three-carbon molecules)
2
Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
4
6 O2
Electron-transport chains
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
6 H2O
2 CO2
3
34 ATP
2 NADH
2
2 acetyl-CoA
(two-carbon molecules)
2 citric acid
(six-carbon molecules)
4
2 four-carbon
molecules
3
4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 17.6
1
Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts
glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules
and produces two ATP and two NADH.
The NADH can go to the
electron-transport chain in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
Cytoplasm
Glucose
(six-carbon molecule)
1 Glycolysis
2 ATP
2 NADH
2 pyruvic acid
(three-carbon molecules)
2
Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
4
6 O2
Electron-transport chains
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
6 H2O
2 CO2
3
34 ATP
2 NADH
2
2 acetyl-CoA
(two-carbon molecules)
2 citric acid
(six-carbon molecules)
4
2 four-carbon
molecules
3
4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Fig. 17.5
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
1
2
Glycolysis converts glucose to
two pyruvic acid molecules.
There is a net gain of two ATP
and two NADH from glycolysis.
Anaerobic respiration, which
does not require O2, includes
glycolysis and converts the two
pyruvic acid molecules produced
by glycolysis to two lactic acid
molecules. This conversion
requires energy, which is derived
from the NADH generated in
glycolysis.
Glucose
2 ATP
Glycolysis
1
2 NADH
Anaerobic
respiration
2 pyruvic
acid
2
2 lactic
acid
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 17.6
1
Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts
glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules
and produces two ATP and two NADH.
The NADH can go to the
electron-transport chain in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
Cytoplasm
Glucose
(six-carbon molecule)
1 Glycolysis
2 ATP
2 NADH
2
The two pyruvic acid molecules
produced in glycolysis are converted to
two acetyl-CoA molecules, producing
two CO2 and two NADH. The NADH
can go to the electron-transport chain.
2 pyruvic acid
(three-carbon molecules)
Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
4
6 O2
Electron-transport chains
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
6 H2O
2 CO2
3
34 ATP
2 NADH
2
2 acetyl-CoA
(two-carbon molecules)
2 citric acid
(six-carbon molecules)
4
2 four-carbon
molecules
3
4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 17.6
1
Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts
glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules
and produces two ATP and two NADH.
The NADH can go to the
electron-transport chain in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
Cytoplasm
Glucose
(six-carbon molecule)
1 Glycolysis
2 ATP
2 NADH
2
The two pyruvic acid molecules
produced in glycolysis are converted to
two acetyl-CoA molecules, producing
two CO2 and two NADH. The NADH
can go to the electron-transport chain.
2 pyruvic acid
(three-carbon molecules)
Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
4
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
6 H2O
2 CO2
3
The two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the
citric acid cycle, which produces four
CO2, six NADH, two FADH2, and two
ATP. The NADH and FADH2 can go to
the electron-transport chain.
6 O2
Electron-transport chains
34 ATP
2 NADH
2
2 acetyl-CoA
(two-carbon molecules)
2 citric acid
(six-carbon molecules)
4
2 four-carbon
molecules
3
4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 17.6
1
Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts
glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules
and produces two ATP and two NADH.
The NADH can go to the
electron-transport chain in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
Cytoplasm
Glucose
(six-carbon molecule)
1 Glycolysis
2 ATP
2 NADH
2
The two pyruvic acid molecules
produced in glycolysis are converted to
two acetyl-CoA molecules, producing
two CO2 and two NADH. The NADH
can go to the electron-transport chain.
2 pyruvic acid
(three-carbon molecules)
Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
4
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
6 H2O
2 CO2
3
4
The two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the
citric acid cycle, which produces four
CO2, six NADH, two FADH2, and two
ATP. The NADH and FADH2 can go to
the electron-transport chain.
The electron-transport chain uses NADH
and FADH2 to produce 34 ATP. This
process requires O2, which combines
with H+ to form H2O.
6 O2
Electron-transport chains
34 ATP
2 NADH
2
2 acetyl-CoA
(two-carbon molecules)
2 citric acid
(six-carbon molecules)
2 four-carbon
molecules
3
4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Fig. 17.7
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Mitochondrion
Cytosol
Outer
membrane
H+
H+
H+
Outer
compartment
H+
2e–
I
H+
2e–
III
H+
H+
H+
H+
II
Inner
compartment
H+
H+
2
H+
Inner
membrane
H+
H+
H+
Carrier
protein
ATP
H+ ATP
synthase
Pi
IV
2e–
NADH
Pi + ADP
2e–
2e–
H+
1
FADH2
H+
H+
ATP
2e–
NAD+
H2O
2H+
1
2
1
ADP
NADH or FADH2
transfer their
electrons to the
electron-transport
chain.
2
As the electrons move through
the electron-transport chain,
some of their energy is used to
pump H+ into the outer
compartment, resulting in a
higher concentration of H+ in
the outer than in the inner
compartment.
3
O2
4
H+
3
The H+ diffuse back into the inner
compartment through special
channels (ATP synthase) that couple
the H+ movement with the production
of ATP. The electrons, H+, and O2
combine to form H2O.
4
ATP is transported out of the
inner compartment by a
carrier protein that exchanges
ATP for ADP.
A different carrier protein
moves phosphate into the
inner compartment.
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 17.6
1
Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts
glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules
and produces two ATP and two NADH.
The NADH can go to the
electron-transport chain in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
Cytoplasm
Glucose
(six-carbon molecule)
1 Glycolysis
2 ATP
2 NADH
2
The two pyruvic acid molecules
produced in glycolysis are converted to
two acetyl-CoA molecules, producing
two CO2 and two NADH. The NADH
can go to the electron-transport chain.
2 pyruvic acid
(three-carbon molecules)
Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
4
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
6 H2O
2 CO2
3
4
The two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the
citric acid cycle, which produces four
CO2, six NADH, two FADH2, and two
ATP. The NADH and FADH2 can go to
the electron-transport chain.
The electron-transport chain uses NADH
and FADH2 to produce 34 ATP. This
process requires O2, which combines
with H+ to form H2O.
6 O2
Electron-transport chains
34 ATP
2 NADH
2
2 acetyl-CoA
(two-carbon molecules)
2 citric acid
(six-carbon molecules)
2 four-carbon
molecules
3
4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Table 17.2
Fig. 10.22
Fig. 17.9
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Nutrients Absorbed
Nutrients are absorbed from the
digestive tract and carried by the blood
to the liver.
Nutrients Processed
The liver converts nutrients into
energy-storage molecules, such as
glycogen, fatty acids, and
triglycerides. Amino acids are also
used to synthesize proteins, such as
plasma proteins. Fatty acids and
triglycerides produced by the liver are
released into the blood. Nutrients not
processed by the liver are also carried
by the blood to tissues.
Amino acids
Proteins
Triglycerides
Nonessential
amino acids
Glucose
Glycogen
Glycerol
 -keto acids
Ammonia
Acetyl-CoA
Fatty
acids
Urea
Energy
Nutrients Stored and Used
Nutrients are stored in adipose tissue
as triglycerides and in muscle as
glycogen. Nutrients also are a source
of energy for tissues. Amino acids
are used to synthesize proteins.
Amino acids
Glucose
Glucose
Fatty acids
Glucose
Fatty acids
Glucose
Glycerol
Proteins
Energy
Glycogen
Muscle
Triglycerides
Adipose
tissues
Most tissues
(including muscle and
adipose)
Energy
Nervous
tissue
Fig. 16.26
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chylomicron
Phospholipid (4%)
Triglyceride (90%)
Cholesterol (5%)
Protein (1%)
Low-density lipoprotein
(LDL)
Phospholipid (20%)
Triglyceride (10%)
Cholesterol (45%)
Protein (25%)
High-density lipoprotein
(HDL)
Phospholipid (30%)
Triglyceride (5%)
Cholesterol (20%)
Protein (45%)
Fig. 10.23
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 17.8
Food
Lipid
Carbohydrate
Protein
Monosaccharides
(e.g., glucose)
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Glycolysis
Ketones
Pyruvic acid
Acetyl-CoA
Amino acids
-keto acid NADH
Citric acid
cycle
Ammonia
ATP
CO2
Urea
O2
NADH
FADH2
Electrontransport chain
H2O
ATP
Fig. 17.10
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Stored Nutrients Used
Stored energy molecules are used
as sources of energy: Glycogen is
converted to glucose, and
triglycerides are converted to fatty
acids. Molecules released from
tissues are carried by the blood
to the liver.
Adipose
tissue
Muscle
Proteins
Amino acids
Glycogen
Glucose
Triglycerides
Glycerol
Energy
Nutrients Processed
The liver processes molecules to
produce additional energy sources:
Glycogen and amino acids are
converted to glucose and fatty
acids to ketones. Glucose and
ketones are released into the blood
and are transported to tissues.
Lactic acid
Fatty acids
Nervous
tissue
Energy
Energy
Fatty acids
Ketone bodies
Glucose
Energy
Glycerol
Fatty acids
Glycogen
Glucose
-keto acid
Amino acids
Most tissues
(including muscle)
Ammonia
Energy
Urea
Acetyl-CoA
Energy
Ketone bodies
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 17.8
Food
Lipid
Carbohydrate
Protein
Monosaccharides
(e.g., glucose)
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Glycolysis
Ketones
Pyruvic acid
Acetyl-CoA
Amino acids
-keto acid NADH
Citric acid
cycle
Ammonia
ATP
CO2
Urea
O2
NADH
FADH2
Electrontransport chain
H2O
ATP
Fig. 10.23
Fig. 10.22
Table 10.3
Fig. 10.19
Fig. 10.21
Fig. 17.11
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Radiation from
sun and water
Evaporation
Convection
from
cool breeze
Radiation
from sand
Conduction from
hot sand
©M.M. Sweet/Flickr/Getty Images RF
Fig. 17.12
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3
4
Actions
Receptors in the skin and
hypothalamus detect increases in
body temperature. The control
center in the hypothalamus
activates heat loss mechanisms.
Effectors Respond:
Increased sweating increases
evaporative heat loss.
Dilation of skin blood vessels
increases heat loss from the skin.
Behavioral modifications, such as
taking off a jacket or seeking a
cooler environment, increase heat
loss.
Homeostasis Disturbed:
Body temperature increases.
Start here
Homeostasis Disturbed:
Body temperature decreases.
Actions
Receptors in the skin and
hypothalamus detect decreases in
body temperature. The control center
in the hypothalamus activates
heat-conserving and heat-generating
mechanisms.
5
6
Homeostasis Restored:
Body temperature decreases.
Body temperature
(normal range)
1
Body temperature
(normal range)
2
Reactions
Homeostasis Restored:
Body temperature increases.
Reactions
Effectors Respond:
Constriction of skin blood vessels
decreases heat loss from the skin.
Shivering increases heat production.
Behavioral modifications, such as
putting on a jacket or seeking a
warmer environment, decrease heat
loss.