Transcript AP-Chapter-3 - McLaren

ESSENTIALS OF A&P
FOR EMERGENCY CARE
CHAPTER
3
Biochemistry: The Basic
Ingredients of Life
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
Bruce J. Colbert • Jeff Ankney • Karen T. Lee • Bryan E. Bledsoe
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Multimedia Asset Directory
Slide 45
Slide 52
Slide 56
Slide 59
Slide 75
Carbohydrates Animation
Lipids Animation
Proteins Animation
DNA Animation
Biochemists Video
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Introduction
• Chemistry is the study of atoms and
molecules and their interactions.
• Physiology is largely about the interactions
between molecules in our cells and tissues
or, more specifically, how chemistry
relates to a living organism.
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Introduction
• This special division of chemistry is known
as biochemistry.
• In order to understand how the body works
and to lay a foundation for the upcoming
cell chapter you need at least a basic
understanding of biochemistry.
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Learning Objectives
• Differentiate between atoms, elements
and ions.
• Define pH, acids and bases and their role
in the body.
• Describe chemical bonding and the role of
water.
• Describe the properties of a solution.
• Distinguish among the types of biological
molecules.
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Learning Objectives
• Explain metabolism.
• Explain cellular respiration.
• Explain the role of enzymes in physiology.
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Pronunciation Guide
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adenosine triphosphate (uh DEN oh seen)
amino (ah MEAN oh)
anabolism (ah NAB oh lizm)
catabolism (kah TAB oh lizm)
covalent (coh VAY lent)
disaccharide (die SACK eh ride)
glycerol (GLIS er oll)
glycogen (GLIE koh jen)
metabolism (meh TAB oh lizm)
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Pronunciation Guide
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monosaccharide (mon oh SACK eh ride)
organelles (OR guh NELLS)
phospholipid (FOS foh LIP id)
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Atoms, Elements, and Ions
• All matter, whether living, like our bodies, or nonliving like this textbook, is made of elements.
– An element is the smallest unit that retains the unique
chemical properties of that specific type of matter.
– Elements cannot be broken into smaller pieces by
routine chemical techniques.
– Elements are usually abbreviated using the first two
letters of their technical names.
– For example, the element sodium (Latin name
natrium) is abbreviated Na, while the element chlorine
is abbreviated Cl.
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Atoms, Elements, and Ions
• Two or more elements joined together
form a molecule.
– Molecules with more than one type of element
are known as compounds.
– Following on our previous example, the
molecule you know as table salt is sodium
chloride, abbreviated NaCl.
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Atoms, Elements, and Ions
• The smallest recognizable unit of an
element is called an atom.
– Atoms consist of a nucleus, containing
protons (positively charged particles) and
neutrons (neutral particles).
– The nucleus is surrounded by electrons
(negatively charged particles).
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Table 3-1 Some Important Trace Elements in the Body
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Table 3-1 (continued) Some Important Trace Elements in the Body
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Figure 3-1 The atom.
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Figure 3-2 the periodic table
Figure 3-2 The periodic table.
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Atoms, Elements, and Ions
• In a typical atom, the number of positively
charged protons (+) equals the number of
negatively charged electrons (-). This
balance of electrons and protons results in
an atom with a neutral charge.
• However, under certain conditions, atoms
can gain or lose electrons. These atoms
are called ions and have either a positive
or negative charge.
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Atoms, Elements, and Ions
• Atoms which have lost an electron will be
positively charged, while atoms that have gained
an electron will be negatively charged.
– Again, we can use sodium and chlorine as examples.
When NaCl (salt) is formed it is neutral and, therefore,
has no charge.
– However, if the elements are separated (ionization),
sodium loses an electron becoming Na+, sodium ion,
while chlorine gains an electron becoming Cl-, a
chloride ion.
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Atoms, Elements, and Ions
• Atoms which have lost an electron will be
positively charged, while atoms that have gained
an electron will be negatively charged.
– Ions are also said to be polar, because they have
charges, like the poles on a battery. The positively
charged atom is attracted to the negatively charged
one. (Conversely, negative charges repel negative
charges and positive repel positive.)
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Atoms, Elements, and Ions
• Atoms which have lost an electron will be
positively charged, while atoms that have gained
an electron will be negatively charged.
– The reason why this is important is that electrolytes
are charged ions found within the body. They
influence the nervous system, muscle activity, and
fluid balance. Important electrolytes include sodium
(Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium
(Mg2+), chloride (Cl-), hydrogen phosphate (HPO4-)
and bicarbonate (HCO3-).
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Acids and Bases
• Acids and bases are also electrolytes
because they can conduct electricity and
breakdown (dissociate) in water.
• Acids can dissolve metals and literally
burn a hole through material (don’t try this
at home!).
– The definition of an acid is something that can
release hydrogen ions.
– Acids taste sour. Acids dissolved in water
release hydrogen ions that can easily react
with other atoms.
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Acids and Bases
• Bases, which have a bitter taste, can
accept hydrogen ions; for example,
bicarbonate (HCO3-) can accept hydrogen
ions, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3), which
is a weak acid.
• Hydroxides (OH-) are common bases,
which accept spare hydrogen ions.
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Acids and Bases
• The concentration or amount of hydrogen and
hydroxides are measured using the pH scale.
– The pH scale is from 0 to 14, where a value between
0 and 6.9 means there are more hydrogen ions
compared to hydroxide or hydroxyl ions, and so it is
said to be acidic.
 Neutral pH, where there are the same number of hydrogen
and hydroxyl ions, is 7.
 A pH greater than (>) 7 indicates that there are more hydroxyl
ions, and therefore it is said to be alkali.
 To give some examples, the pH of blood is between 7.35 and
7.45; bleach has a pH of 11 and grapefruit juice has a pH of
3.
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Acids and Bases
• The systems that help regulate the
acid/base balance include the respiratory
and renal systems. The role of the
respiratory system is to take in air and get
rid of carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon
dioxide is a weak acid. If we stop
breathing, there is a build-up of CO2 in the
body and this build-up of acid is detected
in the brain which gives you an
overwhelming desire to breathe.
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Acids and Bases
• If there is a problem with the respiratory
system, the kidneys come to the rescue
and enable excess acid to be lost in the
urine.
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Table 3-2 The pH Scale.
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Bonding
• Elements can be joined together to form
molecules. The individual elements in
molecules are held together by bonds
between electrons in the atoms.
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Bonding
• If one atom donates electrons to the other atom,
an ionic bond results. Because one atom has
lost electrons and the other has gained them,
the atoms involved in an ionic bond are ions,
and carry a positive or negative charge.
– Using our previous example, the bond between
sodium and chlorine in table salt (NaCl) is an ionic
bond and if NaCl were to dissociate (break apart) it
would form Na+ ions and Cl- ions respectively.
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Figure 3-3 Formation of sodium chloride ions.
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Bonding
• If the electrons are shared by the atoms involved
in the bond, a covalent bond results.
• Covalent bonds may sometimes be unequal
because one atom takes more than its share of
the shared electrons. This type of covalent bond,
a polar covalent bond, results in weak charges
on the elements in the molecule. Polar covalent
bonds are more polar (slight charge) than
covalent bonds, but less polar than the higher
charged ionic bonds.
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Figure 3-4 Covalent bonding.
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Figure 3-4 (continued) Covalent bonding.
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Table 3-3 Summary of Bonds and Their Properties
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Water
• Water (H20) is the chief liquid in biological
systems. All of the fluid in your body is
water-based.
• Water is a polar solvent because the
bonds between the H and O in water are
polar covalent. Oxygen takes more than its
share of electrons. Thus, charged
molecules will be attracted to one end or
the other of a water molecule.
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Water
• Charged molecules containing elements
like oxygen, phosphorus, and nitrogen,
mix easily with water.
• Such molecules are called hydrophilic
(water-loving).
• Other molecules which do not carry a
charge, like fats and oils, do not mix well
with water.
• They are called hydrophobic (waterfearing).
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Figure 3-5 The polar covalent bonding of water.
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Water
• In addition, the polarity of water causes
the development of hydrogen bonds
between water molecules.
• The hydrogen on one water molecule
binds weakly to the oxygen on another
water molecule.
• The bonds between the water molecules
increases water’s heat capacity. Water
can store heat, meaning water heats up
and cools down more slowly than air.
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Solutions
• When one substance is dissolved in another
the combination is called a solution.
• The substance dissolved is called the solute.
The substance doing the dissolving, usually
water in living things, is called the solvent.
• Electrolytes, those important ions necessary
for fluid balance, are the solutes dissolved in
your water-based body fluids.
• The amount of solute dissolved in a solvent is
called the solute concentration.
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Figure 3-6 Solutions.
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FROM THE STREETS:
Intravenous Fluids
• IV fluids often administered in prehospital care.
• Primary reasons for IV fluid therapy
–
–
–
–
Water replacement
Administration of essential electrolytes
Provision of calories
Provision of open vein for administration of
emergency medications
• It is important to choose the correct IV fluid.
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FROM THE STREETS:
Intravenous Fluids
Table 3-4 The Most Commonly Used Prehospital IV Fluids
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Biological Molecules
• Most of your anatomy is made of molecules
called biological molecules. Biological
molecules are molecules found in living
systems that contain mainly the elements
carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), with lesser
amounts of oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur
(S), phosphorous (P) and other elements.
• These molecules fall into four broad
categories: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
and nucleic acids.
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Biological Molecules
• Carbohydrates
– Carbohydrates are sugars and starches. They are
used as energy sources and as structural
molecules.
– The name carbohydrate literally means “watered
carbon”. Carbohydrate molecules all have
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio of 1
carbon, to 2 hydrogens, to 1 oxygen (CH2O).
– Monosaccharides, or simple sugars, have 5 or 6
carbons. Glucose (C6H12O6), your body’s chief
fuel, is a monosaccharide.
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Biological Molecules
• Carbohydrates
– If two monosaccharides are hooked together, a
disaccharide is formed. Sucrose, table sugar,
consists of a glucose and a fructose hooked
together.
– Polysaccharides are made when many
monosaccharides are hooked together.
Glycogen, a molecule in your liver that is used to
store energy, consists of many, many glucose
molecules in a long chain and therefore can be
called upon to break down and release more
glucose into the blood when needed.
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Figure 3-7
Carbohydrates
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Biological Molecules
• Lipids
– Lipids consist of mainly carbon and hydrogen.
They have very little oxygen.
– Because they have little oxygen or any other ions
in them, lipids are hydrophobic.
– Lipids are used for energy storage,
communication, and protection. There are many
types of lipids.
 Fats and oils are probably the lipids most familiar to
you. Fats and oils consist of three fatty acid chains and
a glycerol molecule. They are energy storage molecules
and can be broken down when needed by the body.
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Biological Molecules
• Lipids (cont’d)
– Waxes are lipids that consist of a fatty acid
chain with an alcohol molecule.
 They are some of the most hydrophobic
substances known and are used mainly for
protection, particularly water-proofing. (Why do you
wax the car?)
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Biological Molecules
• Lipids (cont’d)
– A phospholipid molecule has two fatty acid
“tails” and a phosphate (PO4-) “head”. The
tails are hydrophobic but the head is
hydrophilic.
 Phospholipids are key molecules in the structure
and function of cell membranes.
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Biological Molecules
• Lipids (cont’d)
– The last category of lipids is steroids. Steroids
are lipids with the carbon atoms arranged in
rings. Steroids are structural molecules or are
used for communication between cells.
Examples of steroids are cholesterol,
testosterone, and estrogen.
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Figure 3-8 Lipids.
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Figure 3-8 (continued) Lipids.
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Biological Molecules
• Proteins
– Molecules made of long chains of amino
acids. Because amino acids have nitrogen in
them, proteins are always recognizable by the
nitrogen molecules in the backbone of the
molecule.
– A special linkage called a peptide bond ties
the amino acids together and is unique to
protein molecules.
– The structure of a protein is determined by the
order of amino acids in the molecule.
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Biological Molecules
• Proteins (cont’d)
– The most versatile of all biological molecules
act as structural molecules (collagen in
tendons and ligaments), speeding up
biological reactions (enzymes), storing energy
(egg white albumin), moving your body
(muscle protein), protecting against infection
(antibodies) and allowing cells to
communicate (the hormone, insulin), to name
just a few functions of proteins.
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Figure 3-9 Amino acids and proteins.
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Nucleic Acids
• The last category of biological molecules
is nucleic acids. There are only two nucleic
acids in nature, RNA and DNA. They are
involved in controlling the activities of cells
and are the molecules that contain your
genetic code. You will learn more about
nucleic acids when we discuss cellular
reproduction.
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Figure 3-10 Nucleic acids.
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Metabolism
• Metabolism refers to all of the chemical
operations going on within our bodies.
Metabolism requires various nutrients or fuel
to function and produces waste products
much like a car consumes gas for power and
produces waste, or exhaust. Metabolism, for
now, can be thought of as “all the lifesustaining reactions within the body.”
• Metabolism is further subdivided into two
opposite processes.
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Metabolism
• Anabolism is the process by which simpler
compounds are built up and used to
manufacture materials for growth, repair,
and reproduction.
– This is the building phase of metabolism.
Many anabolic reactions are dehydration
synthesis reactions in which water is removed
and biological molecules are hitched together.
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Metabolism
• Catabolism is the process by which
complex substances are broken down into
simpler substances.
– Many catabolic reactions are hydrolysis
reactions in which water is added to break
apart large molecules.
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Figure 3-11 Metabolic reactions: Dehydration synthesis builds new compounds while
hydrolysis breaks down compounds.
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Enzymes
• In order for your cells to be able to do
anything, chemicals must be broken down
and others must be made. You need
building materials to build the small cell
parts called organelles and to make
energy. Any of these processes require
chemical reactions to occur in the cell.
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Enzymes
• The problem is that these reactions are
usually very slow. The hydrolysis and
dehydration synthesis reactions used in
cellular metabolism cannot happen without
help. To solve this problem, cells have
special proteins called enzymes.
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Enzymes
• Enzymes speed up the rate of chemical
reactions, making them fast enough for your
cells to use the materials. Enzymes are
protein molecules that have special binding
sites on them.
• Biological molecules bind to the enzymes and
are carried through the reaction, much like
riders on a roller coaster.
• When the reaction is finished, the enzyme
goes back to get more molecules, called
substrates.
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Enzymes
• Because enzymes are a binding system:
– They are specific. Only certain molecules can be
carried by certain enzymes.
– Substrates can compete for binding sites.
– If all the binding sites are full, the enzymes are said to
be saturated, and molecules must wait for an empty
enzyme before going through the reaction.
– The enzymes can also be blocked or inhibited,
preventing the substrate from binding.
• Enzymes are unchanged by their participation in
the reaction.
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Figure 3-12 Enzymes: Note the enzyme has the ending ase as in sucrase and the actual
substrate is sucrose.
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Cell Energy and ATP
• How does energy get from food to cells?
In simple terms, the body takes in food
and breaks it down (digestion). During this
process, energy is released from the food.
• The problem is that cells can’t use this
energy directly. Only food converted to
glucose can be used to make energy.
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Cell Energy and ATP
• Glucose can be used by your cells during
a series of chemical reactions called
cellular respiration. During cellular
respiration, glucose is combined with
oxygen and is transformed in your
mitochondria into the high energy
molecule called Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP).
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Cell Energy and ATP
• ATP is made up of a base, a sugar, and
three phosphate groups (hence,
triphosphate). The phosphate groups are
held together by high-energy bonds. When
a bond is broken, a high level of energy is
released. Energy in this form can be used
by the cells.
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Cell Energy and ATP
• When a bond is used, ATP becomes ADP
(adenosine diphosphate), which has only
two phosphate groups. ADP now is able to
go and pick up another phosphate and
form a high-energy bond so energy is
stored and the process can begin again.
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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Figure 3-13 Energy is released from the breaking of the phosphate bond in ATP when
converting to ADP.
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
Bruce J. Colbert • Jeff Ankney • Karen T. Lee • Bryan E. Bledsoe
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FROM THE STREETS:
A Cellular Toxin
• Cyanide, a common product of
combustion, stops energy production by
cells.
• Cyanide poisoning can be fatal if an
antidote is not rapidly administered.
• Maintain a high index of suspicion for
possible cyanide poisoning in victims who
have been exposed to the products of
combustion of cyanide (often used in
mining and jewelry-making).
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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Click here to view a video on the topic of biochemists.
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Bruce J. Colbert • Jeff Ankney • Karen T. Lee • Bryan E. Bledsoe
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Snapshots from the Journey
• The smallest unit that is recognizable
chemically is an element. Elements are made
of atoms. Atoms consist of a nucleus
(neutrons and protons) surrounded by
electrons. Elements can be joined together to
make molecules. All living matter is
composed of elements.
• Atoms may gain or lose electrons, causing
them to have a charge. These atoms are
called ions. Physiologically important ions are
called electrolytes.
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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Snapshots from the Journey
• pH is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of
the body. Carbon dioxide is a weak acid and
must be appropriately removed to maintain a
normal pH in the blood. This is accomplished
by a balance between the renal and
respiratory systems functions.
• Atoms are bound together to form molecules.
If electrons are shared by the atoms, the
bond is covalent. If one atom gains electrons
while the other loses them, the bond is ionic
and the molecule is polar.
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Snapshots from the Journey
• Water is a polar covalent molecule that is the
basis of all body fluids. Molecules that mix with
water are polar and are called hydrophilic.
Molecules that will not mix with water are nonpolar and are called hydrophobic. A solution
consists of a substance dissolved (the solute) in
a liquid (the solvent). The solvent in biological
systems is usually water.
• Living things are made of biological molecules.
Biological molecules fall into four categories
based on physical characteristics; proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
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Snapshots from the Journey
• For cells to carry out metabolism they must have
energy in the form of ATP. ATP is made via a
complex series of reactions called cellular
respiration. Enzymes, biological catalysts, are
also necessary for cellular metabolism.
• Metabolism is dependent on the breakdown and
manufacture of molecules called biological
molecules. Each type, carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids have unique
characteristics. Electrolytes are charged ions
that have important roles in body functions.
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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Case Study
Juanita has always been overly concerned about
her weight even though she is considered
physically attractive and fit by her peers. However,
the prom is approaching and she has resorted to
the dangerous practice of using diuretics to “slim
down” to fit into her gown. During gym class she
suddenly became light-headed, had heart
palpitations and was taken to the hospital. Her
blood studies showed an electrolyte imbalance.
Research diuretics and their connection to this
case.
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FROM THE STREETS
You are called to the scene of a 17 year-old
female complaining of “feeling confused”.
The patient’s blood glucose is 55 mg/dl
(normal range 60-120 mg/dl). Her mother
describes that her daughter’s prom is
approaching and she has been trying to
“lose weight” by taking the drug Metformin
(Glucophage®). Metformin is a
antihyperglycemic drug that blocks glucose
absorption in the stomach.
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From the Streets Questions
• Would the patient lose weight by taking
the Metformin? Explain why?
• What type of molecule is glucose?
• Why is the patient’s blood sugar slightly
low?
• Why is she feeling confused?
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
Bruce J. Colbert • Jeff Ankney • Karen T. Lee • Bryan E. Bledsoe
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From the Streets Questions
• Would the patient lose weight by taking the
Metformin? Yes Explain why? The drug
block glucose absorption in the GI tract
reducing absorbed calories.
• What type of molecule is glucose?
Carbohydrate
• Why is the patient’s blood sugar slightly
low? The drug blocks glucose absorption
• Why is she feeling confused? Blood
glucose is slightly low
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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End of Chapter
Review Questions
1. The nucleus of an atom consists of
a. Protons
b. Neutrons
c. Electrons
d. a & b
e. a, b & c
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End of Chapter
Review Questions
2. A person loses body temperature faster
in water than in air because water
a. is hydrophilic.
b. has a high heat capacity.
c. is our major body fluid.
d. is polar.
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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End of Chapter
Review Questions
3. Which of the following is not a property of
enzymes?
a. Specificity
b. Saturation
c. Polarity
d. Inhibition
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End of Chapter
Review Questions
4. These biological molecules will not mix
with water.
a. Proteins
b. Carbohydrates
c. Lipids
d. Amino acids
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End of Chapter
Review Questions
5. A new molecule is discovered in a deep
sea cave fish. It has the following
properties: hydrophilic, very large, used
for energy storage. What kind of
molecule is it?
a. Lipid
b. Protein
c. Nucleic acid
d. Carbohydrate
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End of Chapter
Review Questions
1. Atoms or molecules which can gain or
lose an electron are called
________________.
2. Unequal sharing of electrons in a bond
results in a ______________________
bond.
3. Sodium, potassium, and chloride in body
fluids are known as
___________________.
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End of Chapter
Review Questions
4. NaCl can be in solution in your body.
What is the solvent?
____________________
5. All the chemical reactions in your body
are collectively known as
____________________.
6. Your cells need glucose to make this
high energy molecule
______________________.
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
Bruce J. Colbert • Jeff Ankney • Karen T. Lee • Bryan E. Bledsoe
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End of Chapter
Review Questions
1. Explain the relationship between atoms,
elements, molecules, and ions.
2. List and explain the types of bonds
between atoms.
3. Distinguish among the four classes of
biological molecules.
4. Explain the chemistry of water. Why is
water important in biological systems?
5. Explain the functions of enzymes.
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
Bruce J. Colbert • Jeff Ankney • Karen T. Lee • Bryan E. Bledsoe
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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