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Wine Flavor 101 January 11, 2013
Overview of the Biology of
Brettanomyces: A New Look at
an Old Problem
Linda F. Bisson
Department of Viticulture and Enology
University of California
Brettanomyces
The Old Problem . . .
Historical Background
Brettanomyces
is a budding yeast found
widely distributed in nature
Discovered in beer in 1904 (Claussen), in
wine (Krumbholz & Tauschanoff,1930) and
again in 1940 (Custers)
Results in a variety of aromas
– English Character or Lambic Beers
– Spoilage/Regional Character in Wines
Historical Background
Brettanomyces
produces a wide array of
aromatic compounds
Brettanomyces cellar contamination was
widespread
Brettanomyces characters became synonymous
with “terroir” and regional signature
Brettanomyces characters can compete with
varietal characters for dominance of wine profile
Taxonomy
Anamorphic/non-sexual
form: Brettanomyces
Teleomorphic/sexual form: Dekkera
Several species are found: B. bruxellensis, B.
anomala, B. custerianus
Characteristic traits:
–
–
–
–
–
Ascomycete yeast
Reproduce by budding
Observation of sporulation is rare
Pseudohyphae formed
Fermentation end products: acetic acid and CO2
dominate
– Fermentation more rapid in presence of air: Custer’s
effect
Morphology
Cell Morphology
– Ogival, bullet shaped,
non-uniform
– Sometimes arranged in
pseudohyphae.
Ascospore Morphology
– Conquistador hatshaped
– 1 to 4 spores/ascus
Brettanomyces Genomics
Chromosomal
number varies by strain
Chromosome configuration not well preserved
Not a simple haploid or diploid
– Hybrid between two strains with similar but different
genomes?
– Diploid progenitor that lost the ability to engage in
sexual reproduction (genome renewal)
Accumulation
of allelic differences and
polymorphisms
– Hyper-mutagenic?
– Defective in repair?
Metabolism of Brettanomyces
Can
use numerous sugars, ethanol, other
carbon compounds, and even amino acids as
carbon sources
Can survive in very nutrient poor condition
Can survive and metabolize in extreme
environments and is found in VNC states
Produces diverse metabolic end products
from grape components:
» Volatile Phenols
» Tetrahydropyrazines
Brettanomyces Characteristics
Highly
metabolically versatile
Capable of ethanol production from sugars
anaerobically
Produce acetic acid from sugars aerobically
Can produce viable petite (non-fermenting)
off-spring
Brettanomyces and Oxygen
Oxygen
stimulates growth, acetic acid
formation and glycolysis
Oxidation of acetaldehyde to acetic acid is
favored over reduction to alcohol
Leads to depletion of NAD+
Requires co-substrates or oxygen for acetic
acid production
Redox state of cytoplasm has a strong
impact on metabolites produced
Brettanomyces vs. Saccharomyces
Saccharomyces:
grows 5 times faster
Brettanomyces has slightly higher ethanol yields (1015%)
Saccharomyces produces more glycerol (6 fold higher)
Brettanomyces produces more biomass (20 to 30%
more)
Brettanomyces more tolerant of large changes in pH
and temperature
Brettanomyces has a more energy-efficient
metabolism: can do more with less
Brettanomyces vs. Saccharomyces
Saccharomyces
– Whole genome duplication
– Domestication events
– Reversible adaptation
Brettanomyces
– Intensified local adaptive evolution
– Terminal, non-reversible adaptation
Brettanomyces vs. Saccharomyces
Whole genome duplication (Saccharomyces: buy
all the gear I need and carry it with me) vs.
Intensified local adaptive evolution
(Brettanomyces: live off the land)
Both strategies allow successful adaptation to
challenging environments and enable switching
between metabolic modes.
The WGD is more confining of subsequent
strain integrity; strains are more similar than in
the case of intensified local adaptive evolution
What Does This Mean for
Winemakers and Consumers?
Significant
diversity in compounds
produced by Brettanomyces strains
Regional specificity of compounds
produced due to highly adapted local
populations
Spoilage Organism or Agent of
Regional Character?
Brettanomyces
makes a host of aromatic
compounds
Compounds made differ by strain
Compounds made differ by winery
Compounds made differ by vineyard
Brettanomyces
Role as a Spoilage Organism
Brettanomyces Spoilage Characters
Vinyl
phenols
Ethyl phenols
Isovaleric Acid
Biogenic amines
– Putrescine
– Cadaverine
– Spermidine
Acetic
acid
Host of other compounds
Production of Vinyl Phenols by Brettanomyces
OH
OH
H
H
Cinnamate
CH
OH
decarboxylase
CH
CH
H
Vinyl phenol
reductase
CH2
CH2
CH2
COOH
H
= coumaric
OH
= caffeic
OMe
= ferulic
The Main Spoilage Characters
Three
main phenolic spoilage compounds:
– 4-Ethylphenol (band aid)
– 4-Ethylguaiacol (smoky medicinal)
– 4-Ethylcatechol (horsy)
Isovaleric
acid (rancid, sour, vomit and
sometimes barnyard note)
Is That Character Desirable?
Detection
threshold varies with varietal from
126 to 420 ppb of 4-EP depending upon matrix
Recovery Thresholds:
– 50% of tasters can detect 605 ppb in wine or 440 ppb
in water of 4-EP
Chatonnet
has defined spoilage as:
– >426 ppb of 4-EP and 4-EG
– >620 ppb of 4-EP
Incidence of Spoilage
Country
>426ppb
>620ppb
France
36%
28%
Italy
49%
19%
Australia
59%
46%
Portugal
42%
27%
Wines may contain up to 50 ppm (!) of 4-EP
Vinyl Phenol Formation
Detoxification?
Co-Substrate?
Vinyl Phenol Formation
4-EP
formation is growth associated
4-EP formation not correlated with acetic
acid formation
High 4-EP producers tolerate higher
environmental levels of p-coumaric acid
When Is It Spoilage?
High
concentration, dominating wine
profile
Conflict with wine matrix characters
Suppression of varietal character
Enhancement of off-notes
Lactic acid bacteria often found in wines
with Brettanomyces
The Wirz Strain Trial
Take
a large collection of 35
Brettanomyces strains: 17 Strains from
CA, 1 from NY, 1 from MO, 4 from France,
2 from Germany, 2 from New Zealand, 2
from Chile, 2 from Malta, 2 from Belgium,
1 from Canada, 1 from Thailand
Perform descriptive analysis with trained
panelists following growth in Cabernet
Sauvignon wine
14 panelists participated
The Main Aromas Found:
Band-Aid
(4-Ethyl Phenol)
Earthy (Geosmin)
Horsy
Leather
Putrid
Soy
Tobacco
The Standards
8 aroma standards were selected by the
panelists:
– Soy (Soy Sauce)
– Band-Aid (4-Ethyl Phenol)
– Horsy (Horse Sweat-soaked Towel)
– Putrid (Burnt Fava Beans)
– Tobacco (Shredded Cigarette)
– Leather (Leather Shoelace)
– Earthy (Geosmin)
ANOVA
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed that
the variance in the data for 5 of the 7
attributes could be explained by the wines:
– Band-Aid, horsey, earthy, putrid, soy. (p<0.06)
– Leather and tobacco judge interaction was
too high
3
PC2 (27.9%)
Black: CA
Pink: Canada
Lavender: NY
Blue: MO
Red: France
Green: Germany
Orange: Chile
Dark Blue: NZ
Brown: Belgium
Light Green: Thailand
-3
2091
2076
2092
1
Bandaid
2054
2093
2059
2052
2065
2060
2079
2080
738
-2
2
2049
2067
2041
752
-1 2050
2063
0
1
Control
2066
Earthy
2062
2051
2053
2085
Soy
2058 Horsey 2081
2083
0
2030
2046
2077
2078
2
3
Putrid
2082
-1
615
2075
2047
-2
2048
-3
PC1 (41.4%)
What Does This Mean?
There
is a group of strains that showed no effect
on the wine: grew but no off-characters were
produced
Other strains showed differing impacts on the
wine
Aroma groupings were observed:
– Band-Aid & Soy vs. Earthy & Putrid; Horsey vs.
nothing. All vs. nothing.
Correlation
of descriptors
– Earthy and Putrid are very highly correlated, Band-Aid
and Soy, Soy and Horsey also correlated but less
highly
Lessons Learned
Strain
diversity evident in same wine:
strains use different metabolic strategies
Not much correlation with geographical
location of origin
Many strains were on the “positive” side:
not just absence of off-characters
Some panelists seemed to be “blind” to
some characters as the consensus
descriptor
Subsequent Studies
Lucy
Joseph: GC-Olfactory
Brad Kitson: Role of specific precursors in
wine
Beth Albino: Survey of strains, precursors
and diversity of aromatic impressions:
Birth of the Brett Aroma Wheel
Lucy Joseph: Metabolomic analyses,
refinement of Brett Aroma Wheel
Brettanomyces
The New Look
Brettanomyces Aroma Impact
The
sensory analysis demonstrated that
different strains impact the same wine in
different ways
Some of the Brettanomyces-infected wines
were “preferred” over the control in judge
comments
Judges disagreed on the nature of the
positive descriptors
New goal: better understanding of the
positive impacts of Brettanomyces on wines
Brettanomyces and Regional
Character
Local
Brettanomyces strains contribute to
the expected aromatic profile of wines
when allowed to bloom during aging
Some people, cultures, population
segments are attracted to those characters
Many more people are attracted to the
positive Brettanomyces characters if the
vinyl phenols and isovaleric acid
contributions are minimized
Brettanomyces Characters
Are
described differently by different people
Strongly trigger complex memory responses
See the perception phenomenon of “filling in
the aroma gap”
Show strong matrix effects
Can add to complexity
The Brett Aroma Impact Wheel
Not
a typical descriptive analysis
Wanted the consensus terms but also
breadth of descriptors
The Search for a Neutral/
Positive Strain
Neutral
Strains: may be useful in making
wines stable against further Brettanomyces
infection via consumption of residual nutrients
Positive Strains: may impart some of the
spicy, complex characters Brettanomyces is
known for minus the negatives
Better understanding of metabolism may lead
to a better understanding of the negative
impacts of wine and allow better prediction of
which wines to use for this “style”
The Search for a Neutral/
Positive Strain
Variations
in vinyl phenol production
Not consistently stable
Strong matrix influence that is not well
understood
Bottom Line: Brettanomyces cannot be
trusted metabolically, but if historical
winery experience is positive and there is
no subsequent adaptive pressure, the
positive influence may recur
Today’s Program: AM
The
Brettanomyces Signature Spoilage
Characters
– Spiked Cabernet Wine
Influence
of Matrix:
– Characters in different wines
» Smoky Red Fruit Grenache
» Gamy Pinot noir
» Barbera
Today’s Program: PM
Brettanomyces
Aroma Impact Wheel
– Tasting of Merlot Wine with Different Strains
– Tasting of Brett “suppressed and salvaged”
wine
Brettanomyces in Commercial Wines:
– Winemaker Panel
– Tasting of Commercially wines with Brett
contributions: selected by use of Aroma
Impact Wheel descriptors