Transcript Science Fair Project

EOC Review
Scientific Method
Collaborate
Share info
 Build upon other work
 Accuracy
 Accuracy is how close a measured
value is to the actual (true) value.
 Precision
 Precision is how close the measured
values are to each other.
Direct Relationship
15
10
pH
Column1
5
0
0
1
2
3
 variable increases and
other variable increases
Inverse Relationship
6
5
4
Series 1
Column1
Column2
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
variable increases and other
variable decreases
Linear Relationship
6
5
4
Series 1
Column1
Column2
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
each unit change in the x variable will
bring about the same change in the y
variable
Non Linear
120
100
80
Series 1
Column1
Column2
60
40
20
0
10
20
30
40
Percent Error
 Difference between a measured
value and a known value.
 Used to report the difference
between a measured or
experimental value and a true or
exact value.
1000 g = 1 kg
Kilo – 1000
Centi – 1/100
Milli – 1/1000
44 ml
X
1L
1000ml
Organic
Compounds
Compounds that contain
carbon, hydrogen and usually
oxygen
Frequently contains N, S, P
Organic Chemistry
 C forms 4 bonds
 H forms 1 bond
 O forms 2 bonds
 H is more plentiful than C because of the
bonding
 EX: CH4
Building Blocks of Organic
Compounds
 Carbohydrates: Glucose
 Lipids: Fatty Acids and Glycerol
 Proteins: Amino Acids
 Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides
Enzymes
Specialized proteins that
lower the activation
energy required to make
a reaction proceed
 A protein catalyst called an enzyme
 Can decrease the energy of
activation needed to begin a
reaction
EA without
enzyme
EA with
enzyme
Energy
Reactants
Net
change
in energy
Products
Figure 5.5B
Progress of the reaction
It prevents wastes, which would
cause problems, from
accumulating.
It assures that the ecosystem will
not run out of essential elements.
1. Begin with a CO2.
2 Photosynthesis
3. Food chains
4. Cell respiration
All organisms are made of
roughly the same organic
molecules in similar
proportions
A measure of their dry weight
is a rough measure of the
energy they contain.
Biomass
A census of the population,
multiplied by the weight of an
average individual in it
Gives an estimate of the
weight of the population.
A production pyramid explains why meat is a
luxury for humans
 A field of corn

Can support many more human vegetarians than
meat-eaters
Trophic level
Secondary
consumers
Human
meat-eaters
Cattle
Primary
consumers
Human
vegetarians
Corn
Producers
Figure 37.14
Corn
Biomagnification
 The increase of the concentration of a
substance that occurs in the food chain.
 Substances - pesticides or heavy metals
 The substances become concentrated in
tissues or internal organs because the
substances are very slowly metabolized
or excreted.
Only about 10% of the energy
stored at each trophic level is
available to the next level
Eutrophication
 Occurs when a body of water acquires a high
concentration of nutrients (phosphates and
nitrates).
 This increases amount of algae in water.
 As the algae die/decompose, high levels of
organic matter and the decomposing
organisms deplete the oxygen from the water.
 This causes the death of other organisms
(fish).
Greenhouse Gases
 Carbon Dioxide – fossil fuels, solid waste,
trees
 Methane – production and transportation of
coal, natural gas, and oil
 Nitrous Oxide – agricultural and industrial
 Fluorinated gases – industrial, commercial,
and household uses
Fossil Fuels
Fuels formed from remains of
plants and animals
Ex: Natural gas, oil coal
Ozone Layer
•Ozone - 0₃ - naturally
occurring in the
stratosphere
•Ozone layer - Protects
earth from ultra violet
rays
•CFC’s –– destroy ozone
by releasing chlorine into
the atmosphere
 Atmospheric CO2 is reflecting heat back
down to the planet’s surface.
 Only by phasing out coal use, ending
deforestation and reducing the use of
other fossil fuels can the numbers be
reversed.
Other Causes
 Clear cutting of
forests
 Increased use of
fossil fuels
 Methane pollution
Deforestation
 Removal of a forest/trees where the land is
thereafter converted to a non-forest use
 Trees may be cut down to be used or sold as fuel
 Cleared land is used as pasture for livestock,
plantations of commodities and settlements.
 Results in damage to habitat and loss of
biodiversity.
 It has adverse impacts on using of atmospheric
CO2, causing a buildup.
Greenhouse Effect
 Car in summer
 Greenhouse gases absorb some the
energy radiated from the earth and
trap it in the atmosphere.
 Human activities have INCREASED
the amount of greenhouse gases
 Animal: Heterotrophs – consume
food
 Plants: Autotrophs – make their
own food
 Fungus: Heterotrophs/
Decomposers – absorb food
Robert Hooke
Coined the name cell
Looked at cork cells under
microscope
Organelles
 Nucleus: Control center
 ER: Transportation center
 Rough ER: Helps make protein
 Smooth ER: Breaks down toxins
 Golgi: Packaging and shipping
 Mitochondria: Power House, ATP
 Vacuole: Store water nutrients and waste
Organelles
 Lysosome: Recycling center
 Cytoskeleton: Support and movement
 Ribosomes: Makes protein
 Cytoplasm: Bathes organelles
Organelles
Plant
 Chloroplast
 Cell Wall
 Huge vacuole
Animal
 Centriole
Photosynthesis
 Carbon Dioxide + Water 
Glucose + Oxygen
Photosynthesis
 Green plants and algae use the
solar energy and molecules of CO2
into sugar/starch and 02.
 CO2 + H20  C6H12O6 + O2
Photosynthesis Recap
Primary Productivity
 is the production of organic
compounds from atmospheric
or aquatic CO2 through the
process of photosynthesis
Cellular
Respiration
Occurs primarily in the mitochondria
 Aerobic breakdown of glucose into
CO2 and H20
 C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H20 + energy
Meiosis
Occurs in plants and animals
that reproduce sexually.
Usually occurs in specialized
sex organs - Ovaries, Testes
Haploid
 Found in gametes
 n=?
 Cells formed in meiosis
Diploid
 Found in somatic cells
 Fertilized egg
 2n =?
 Cells formed in Mitosis
Prophase I
Chromosomes form
Homologous pairs come
together
Crossing Over occurs
Principle of
Independent
Assortment
The inheritance of alleles
for one trait does not affect
the inheritance of alleles
for another trait
Principle of
Segregation
1.Heredity characteristics
are determined by distinct
units
Principle of
Segregation
2.For each characteristic,
an individual carries 2
factors, one inherited
from each parent
Principle of
Segregation
3.The 2 factors of
each pair segregate
from each other and
end up in gametes
 Frederick Griffith - studying 2 strains of
bacteria

1 causes pneumonia, 1 harmless

When killed pathogenic bacteria and mixed
with living healthy bacteria - some converted
 Martha Chase and Alfred Hershey - showed that
DNA was genetic material

Used radio isotopes to label DNA and protein in
Phage T2 and ecoli cells

Sulfer - protein

Phosphate - DNA
Genetic Engineering
The direct manipulation of
genes for practical
purposes
Cloning
 Nuclear Transplantation: replaces the nucleus of
an egg cell or a zygote with a nucleus of an adult
somatic cell
 Cells divides  creates blastocyst
 Reproductive Cloning: If animal is a mammal, the
blastocyst is implanted into uterus for further
development
 Therapeutic Cloning: Produce embryonic stem
cells for therapeutic treatments
Recombinant DNA Technology
 Combining genes from different
sources into a single DNA
molecule
 Can use different species
 Often uses plasmids
Recombinant DNA
 DNA from two different sources
are combined into the same DNA
PCR
 Polymerase Chain Reaction
 DNA is copied many times in a
test tube.
 Process can generate 100 billion
copies of DNA in 4 hours
Gel Electrophoresis
Human Genome Project
 The main goals were to provide a complete
and accurate sequence of the 3 billion DNA
base pairs that make up the human genome
and to find all of the estimated 20,000 to
25,000 human genes.
Speciation
Evolution of a new
species
Adaptation
 Product of Natural Selection
 Change usually is caused by
mutation
 Structures or behaviors that make
efficient use of environment
Selection
Natural
 Survival of the
fittest
 Those with the
best adaptations,
survive and
reproduce
Artificial
 Done by us
 Typically done by
breeders or
geneticists
 Select desirable traits
and breed those
individuals with
those traits
Allopatric
Speciation
Speciation due to being
separated by a geographic
barrier
Sympatric Speciation
 New species develop without
geographic isolation
 Formation of a new species as a
result of a genetic change that
produces reproductive barriers
 Mostly in plants
Parapatric Speciation
Speciation that occurs due to
variations in the mating habits
or rituals of a population
within a continuous
geographical area.
Punctuated Equilibrium
 Abrupt Changes in species within very
long periods of equillibrium
 Evolutionary changes happens radidly
 Trilobites, some dinosaurs
Divergent Evolution
 The process by which an interbreeding population
or species diverges into two or more descendant
species.
 Occurs when a group from a specific population
develops into a new species
 Ex: Human foot vs Monkey foot
Protein Synthesis
 DNA: Made in nucleus, double stranded, A-T, G -C
 RNA: 3 types, single stranded, A,U,G,C
 mRNA: Messenger RNA, made in nucleus according to
DNA (DNA: ATGC  mRNA: UACG)
 tRNA: Brings amino acids to ribosome based on mRNA
 mRNA: AUG  tRNA brings in Methionine
 rRNA: Holds ribosome together
 Transcription: Process of making mRNA
 Translation: Process of making a polypeptide
Mutations
Change in DNA sequence
Can change phenotype
Can be passed down to future generations
X – Rays can cause
Point Mutation
 Original:
The fat cat ate the wee rat.
 Point Mutation: The fat hat ate the wee rat.
Frame Shift Mutation
 Original: The fat cat ate the wee rat.
 Frame Shift The fat caa tet hew eer at.
Frame Shift
Deletion
 Original: The fat cat ate the wee rat.
 Deletion The fat ate the wee rat.
Insertion
 Original
The fat cat ate the wee rat.
 Insertion The fat cat xlw ate the wee rat.
Insertion
Inversion
 Original:
 Inversion:
The fat cat ate the wee rat.
The fat tar eew eht eta tac.
Genetic Problems
 Monohybrid Cross: Cross involving 1 trait
 Dihybrid Cross: Cross involving 2 traits
 Incomplete Dominance: Blending of
phenotypes
 Codominance: Shared dominance; blood
type AB
 Sex Linked: On X chromosome; more
males get
Codominance, Blood Types
Sex Linked
Bacteriophage
Two Types of
Monerans
Archaea bacteria:
Ancient Bacteria
Eubacteria: True
Bacteria
Archaebacteria: Ancient
Bacteria
 Confined to extreme environments
 Cell walls lack peptidylglycan
 Plasma Membranes have lipid
compositions unlike any organism
 Live without oxygen
Archaebacteria: Ancient
Bacteria
 Methane producers (Methanogens)
 Salt loving Bacteria (Extreme
Halophiles)
 Heat and Acid Loving Bacteria
(Extreme Thermophiles)
Eubacteria: True Bacteria
Includes all modern
prokaryotes
Has a cell wall of complex
carbohydrates
Has a cell membrane or 2
Reproduction
Asexual
 Clones
 Exact copies of
parents
 Binary Fission,
Cell cycle, buds
Sexual
 Combination
of genetic
information
The graph below shows the levels of acidity that different kinds
of freshwater fish can tolerate. Low pH values mean the water is
more acidic.
Based on the data, which of the following fish would most likely
experience the largest population declines due to acid rain
pollution?
A. brown trout
B. smallmouth bass
C. fathead minnow
D. yellow perch
The graph below shows the levels of acidity that different kinds
of freshwater fish can tolerate. Low pH values mean the water is
more acidic.
C. fathead minnow


The diagram below shows the final steps of a biochemical pathway used by the bacterium
Serratia marcescens to produce a red pigment molecule.
 Letters X, Y, and Z represent intermediate molecules produced in the pathway. Four
enzymes are also involved in the pathway, as shown.
A mutant strain of S. marcescens produces molecules X and Y but does not produce the red
pigment molecule or molecule Z.
 Based on this result, it can be concluded that there must be a mutation in the gene coding
for which enzyme?

A. enzyme 1 B. enzyme 2 C. enzyme 3 D. enzyme 4


The diagram below shows the final steps of a biochemical pathway used by the bacterium
Serratia marcescens to produce a red pigment molecule.
 Letters X, Y, and Z represent intermediate molecules produced in the pathway. Four
enzymes are also involved in the pathway, as shown.
A mutant strain of S. marcescens produces molecules X and Y but does not produce the red
pigment molecule or molecule Z.
 Based on this result, it can be concluded that there must be a mutation in the gene coding
for which enzyme?
 C. enzyme 3

Students in a biology laboratory are
monitoring the rate at which hydrogen
peroxide breaks down to produce water
and oxygen gas.
 They begin monitoring a
sample of hydrogen peroxide and then add
catalase, an enzyme that speeds up its
breakdown.
 Their data are shown in the
table below.

Time (min)
Rate of Hydrogen Peroxide
Breakdown (molecules per min) 0.0
 0.5
0.030
 1.0
0.032
 1.5
4,970,000.000
 2.0
5,001,000.000
 2.5
4,985,300.000
 3.0
5,021,700.000
0.000

Based on the data in this table, during
which of the following time periods did
the students add the catalase to the
hydrogen peroxide?

A. between 0.0 and 0.5 min
 B. between 1.0 and 1.5 min
 C. between 2.0 and 2.5 min
 D. between 2.5 and 3.0 min

Based on the data in this table, during
which of the following time periods did
the students add the catalase to the
hydrogen peroxide?

 B. between 1.0 and 1.5 min

A graph of atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentration over time is shown below.

Scientists are investigating the cause of
the large increase in atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentration since about 1800.
Which of the following provides the
best explanation for the increase?

A. eruptions of large volcanoes
 B. use of fossil fuels by humans
 C. natural fluctuations of climate
 D. photosynthesis by phytoplankton

Scientists are investigating the cause of
the large increase in atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentration since about 1800.
Which of the following provides the
best explanation for the increase?

 B. use of fossil fuels by humans