Transcript Medicine and Drugs

HL CHEM D: Medicine and Drugs
BY HEIMAN KWOK 12N03S
13.7.14
D.1 PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS
Background Information
• The best way to fight disease is by maximizing
the effectiveness of the body’s natural
defence system, by supplementing our natural
healing process
• Prevent Entry > Attack Invaders > Immune
System
Effect of Medicine and Drugs on the
functioning of the body
• Alter incoming sensory sensations
• Alters mood or emotions
• Alters physiological states, including
consciousness, activity level or coordination
• The Placebo Effect - used as a control
substance; shows the power of suggestion, or
the body’s natural healing
NOTE THAT Medicine and Drugs…
• May or may not be from doctors or
pharmacies
• May or may not have beneficial medical
properties
• From Plants or Fungi in labs or from GMO
• Helpful/ Harmful
• Legal/ illegal
RECOGNISE Categories of Medicine
• Infection Fighters: Antiseptics, Antibiotics,
Antivirals
• Affecting metabolism: hormones and vitamins
• Affecting CNS: stimulants, depressants,
analgesics (painkiller), anaesthetics (remove
sense of felling)
Methods of Administration
• Oral: taken by mouth – tablets, capsules, pills,
liquids, enteric = coating, so its of slow release
• Inhalation: vapour breathed in; rapid, anaesthesia
smoking – asthma, nicotine and cocaine
• Parenteral/ Injection 1. intramuscular (to the
muscle) – vaccines; 2. intravenous (bloodstream)
– local anaesthetics; 3. subcutaneous
(underneath the skin) – dental injections
Methods of Administration
• Topical: skin patches and ointments absorbed
directly from the skin into the bloodstream –
hormone treatments such as nicotine patches
and oestrogen
• Rectal: inserted into the rectum – can be
destroyed by acids treatment of digestive
illnesses, haemorrhoids
• Eye or Ear Drops: liquids delivered directly to the
opening – treatment of infections in the eye or
ear
Lethal Dose 𝐿𝐷50
• Lethal Dose = dose of a substance in mg per kg
of body mass that kills 50% of the sample
• The smaller the LD 50, the more toxic the
substance
Effective Dose 𝐸𝐷50
• Effective Dose = dose of a substance in mg per
Kg of body mass that work 50% of the sample
• The smaller the ED 50, the more effective the
substance
Therapeutic Window
• ^ = ratio of the lethal dose 𝐿𝐷50 to the
Effective dose 𝐸𝐷50
• Therapeutic Effect – the intended
physiological effect
• Range of a drug’s concentration in the blood
between its therapeutic level and its toxic
level so the dosage is safe
• The wider the window, the safer the substance
Stages in Research, Development and
testing of new Pharmaceutical
Products
1. Research
2. Development – purification, working out how
it works
3. Testing – on animals: work out the 𝐿𝐷50
𝐸𝐷50 (effective dose on 50%), also show side
effects
4. Clinical Trials 3 phases - double blinded
randomized placebo test on human patients
CASE STUDY: Thalidomide
• Sleeping aid to combat morning sickness
• One isomer of the racemic mixture was
harmful
• Caused deformations in the babies of
pregnant women
• Caused by not testing on pregnant mice or
having clinical trials on humans
Drug Effect
• Main Effect: desired
• Side Effect: unintended physiological effects
• Eg. Morphine for pain relief, however
constipation is side effect; or for diarrhea but
pain relief as a side effect
• Depends on the purpose sought after
Tolerance
• Over time and regular use, the user needs increasing
dosage of a drug to receive the same physiological
effect
• The user’s dose gets closer to 𝐿𝐷50
• For some drugs, tolerance develops to one effect of the
drug and not to other effects (side)
• If the drug is not taken for a long time > decrease in
tolerance > overdose
• Dependence or Addiction: user becomes dependent on
the drug to feel normal and suffers from withdrawal
symptoms if the drugs is not taken; eg. Heroin, alcohol
D.2 ANTACIDS
Excess secretion = Gastric Juice
• Gastric glands in the lining of the stomach
produce HCl which keep the pH of the
stomach at 1-2
• Acid environment kills bacteria and provides
optimum environment for digestive enzymes
• ^ can cause acid indigestion, heart burn/ acid
reflux to the esophagus and stomach ulcers
Pepsinogen and Pepsin
• Pepsinogen forms pepsin in an acidic
environment
• Pepsin breaks down proteins into amino acids
Antacids
• Weak bases (not SB as they will burn the gullet)
• A remedy, drug that helps combat excess acid by
neutralising HCl and toning down the pH
•
•
•
•
Aluminium Hydroxide (𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 )
Magnesium Hydroxide (Mg(𝑂𝐻)2 )
Sodium Hydrogencarbonate (𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )
Calcium Carbonate (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 )
Antacid Equations
CaCO3 + 2 HCl  CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 + HCl  NaCl + H2O + CO2
Al(OH)3 + 3 HCl  AlCl3 + 3 H2O
Mg(OH)2 + 2 HCl  MgCl2 + 2 H2O
MgO + 2 HCl  MgCl2 + H2O
Alginates and anti-foaming agents
• Some contain alginates which produce a
neutralising layer 1) produces a neutralising
layer on top of acid 2) prevents acid from
rising reflux into the esophagus
• Others contain anti-foaming agents
(dimethicone/ simethicone) which prevents
formation of gases and reduces bloating and
flatulence as a result of Carbon Dioxide
production
Antacids Side Effects
• Mg compounds cause constipation
• Al: laxative or causes diarrhoea
• Carbonates: produce Carbon Dioxide causing
bloating and flatulence
• Because antacids change the pH of the
stomach, they can alter other chemical
reactions including the absorption of other
drugs. They should never be taken for an
extended period without medical supervision.
D.3 ANALGESICS - PAINKILLERS
How is pain perceived?
• Where you are injured; prostaglandins are
produced
Ways Analgesics Prevent Pain
• Mild Analgesics eg. Ibuprofen, Paracetamol are
considered non-addictive: intercept the transmission of
pain at the source; indirectly blocks the enzymecontrolled synthesis of prostaglandins
• Strong Analgesics (opioids/ narcotics) eg. morphine
may have dependence: temporarily binds to opioid
receptors sites in the brain and CNS – hence you don’t
sense the pain but its still there
• Relative value of these two approaches to pain
management
Derivatives of Salicylic Acid (eg.
Aspirin) in Use
• Mild analgesic for minor aches and pains to
relieve headaches, sunburn pain and pain of
arthritis
• Anti-pyretic to reduce fever
• Anti-inflammatory agent to prevent swelling
from injuries
• Anti-platelet to prevent clotting by inhibiting
the production of prostaglandins, prevents
heart disease
Aspirin and Paracetamol (non-steroidal
analgesics and anti-inflammatory)
•
•
•
•
Aspirin
Benzene Ring
Ester
Carboxylic Acid
•
•
•
•
•
Paracetamol
Benzene Ring
Hydroxol
Amide
Carbonyl
Aspirin vs Paracetamol
Aspirin
Paracetamol
Yes
Yes
Antipyretic – reduces fever Yes
Yes
Anti-inflammatory
Yes
No
Anti-Platelet
Yes
(No)
Side Effects
Stomach wall irritant,
blood anti-coagulant,
internal bleeding,
ulceration
No upset stomach or
internal bleeding
Severe Side Effects (over
dosage)
Gastrointestinal Bleeding
following use of alcohol
Serious kidney, liver and
brain damage
Allergies
0.5% get skin rashes,
respiratory difficulty, shock
Rare
Child-Use Friendly
No; causes Reye’s
Syndrome – fatal liver and
brain disorder
Yes
Analgesic – painkiller?
Codeine, Morphine and Diamorphine
(Heroin)
• P.631 of Brown and Ford
• Potent-ness: Codeine > Morphine > Heroin
Use of Morphine and its derivatives
(Opiates)
Advantages
Disadvantages
Relief of Severe Pain eg. From injury,
chronic disease (cancer), surgery
Treatment of diarrhoea by its constipating
effect
Relieve coughing by supressing the brain
stem
Relief from emotional and psychological
pain
Analgesia, drowsiness, mood changes,
mental clouding, anxiety, fear, sedation,
nausea, vomiting
Tolerance – due to adaption of neurons
and Cross Tolerance (tolerance to similar
opiates)
P.141 Figure 1509 Green and Damji
Physical Dependence – withdrawal
symptoms
D.4 DEPRESSANTS
Effect of Depressants
• Figure 15.9 P.633
• Supresses the brain and CNS
• Changes the communication between brain cells
by altering the concentration or activity of the
chemicals called neurotransmitters
• Cause a DECREASE in brain activity which in turn
influences the functioning of the other parts of
the body such as the heart and breathing rate
• (NOTE: analgesics are also depressants)
Effect of Use of alcohol
Social
Physiological
Sense of occasion
Antiseptic
Creates mild excitement
Hardens the skin
Allows users to become more talkative,
confident and relaxed
Craving or compulsion to drink
Lost in productivity
Physical addition – withdrawal symptoms
such as nausea, sweating, anxiety,
increased blood pressure
Increased crime, accidents rates
Tolerance – needing increasing amounts
for the same effect
Effect of Abuse of alcohol
Short Term
Long Term
Loss of self-restraint, memory,
concentration and insight are impaired
Dependence – Alcoholism w/ withdrawal
symptoms
Loss of balance and judgement
Liver disease eg. Cirrhosis, liver cancer
Violent behaviour associated with
domestic abuse and family breakdown
Coronary heart disease
Dangerous risk-taking behaviour leading
to accidents
High blood pressure
Dehydration caused by increased urine
output – leading to hangover and lost of
productivity
Fetal alcohol syndrome
At high doses - vomiting, loss of
consciousness, coma and death
Permanent brain damage
Detection of ethanol in Breath
Breathalyser
• The alcohol in the blood is realised into the air
with the exhaled breath
• The alcohol vapour is oxidised by Potassium
Dichromate +6 to +3 which then changes from
orange to green
• The extent of colour change is then measured
using a photocell and converted into a
percentage BAC mass in grams of ethanol per 100
ml of blood
Detection of ethanol in Breath 2
Infrared Spectroscopy with an intoximeter (more
accurate)
• Causes vibrational motions depending on the
mass of the atoms and the length/ strength of the
bonds within the molecule
• Compares the intensity of IR radiation through
the sample with the intensity through air
• Does not distinguish between ethanol an
propanone which is often present in the breadth
o a diabetic patient
Detection of ethanol in Blood and
Urine
• Gas-liquid Chromatography
• Blood or Urine is vapourised and injected into a stream
of an inert gas (mobile phase) over the surface of a
non-volatile liquid (stationary phase)
• Components of the vapour including ethanol gas move
at different rates depending on their boiling pints and
relative solubility in the two phases
• Leaving the column holding the liquid phase after a
specific interval of time known as retention time
• Area under the peak is compared the a known
standard in the mixture such as propan-1-ol
Synergistic effects of ethanol with
other drugs
• With Aspirin – causes increased bleeding of the
stomach lining and increased risk of ulcers
• With other depressants such as barbiturates such
as sleeping pills – can induce heavy sedation,
possibly leading to coma
• With Tobacco – increases the incidence of
cancers esp. liver and intestines
• With other drugs – interfere with the metabolism
by the liver which may cause greater and
prolonged effects of the drug
Commonly used depressants and
structures
D.5 STIMULANTS
What are Stimulants?
• Acts on the brain and CNS
• Changes the communication between brain
cells by altering the concentration or activity
of the chemicals called neurotransmitters
• Cause an INCREASE in brain activity which in
turn makes the body more alert
• Prevent excessive drowsiness through the day
and so allow greater concentration and
though processes to be possible
What are Stimulants?
• Results include increased heart rate, blood
pressure, wakefulness, restlessness, agitation
and insomnia
• Results are temporary and then followed by
fatigue, insomnia and depression
• Sympathomimetic Drug = simulates
sympathetic nervous system/ mimics
adrenaline
Physiological Effects of Stimulants
• Facilitate breathing by causing relaxation of
the air passages – treatment of respiratory
infections such as sever bronchitis
• Reduce appetite – treatment for obesity
• Cause palpitations or tremors to occur
• In excess – cause extreme restlessness,
sleeplessness, fits, delusions and
hallucinations
Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
• Released at times of stress ‘flight or fight
response’
• Increases heart rate and blood pressure
• Increase blood flow to the brain and muscles
• Increase air flow to the lungs
• Increase mental awareness
• Noradrenaline or norepinephrine are similar
Amphetamine
• Stimulates and enhances the effects of
Noradrenaline and Adrenaline
• Increases mental alertness and physical energy
• Side Effects: dilation of the pupils of the eyes,
decreased appetite, possible blurred vision and
dizziness
• Highly addictive and toxic – rapid development of
tolerance and dependence leads to deterioration
of body systems
• Serious long term effects: severe depression and
reduced resistance to infection
Nicotine Consumption
Short Term Effect
Long Term Effects
Increases concentration – not in ms
High blood pressure
Relieves Tension and Boredom
Increases stress on the heart: Increases
risk of heart disease including angina
Helps counter fatigue
Coronary thrombosis
A vasoconstrictor; Increases heart rate
and blood pressure
Increases level of fatty acids in the blood
– lead to atherosclerosis and stroke
Decreases urine output
Over-stimulation of stomach acids which
can lead to increased risk of peptic ulcers
Lipid Stable Molecule
Able to cross the blood-brain barrier – brings about rapid effects on brain activity
Increase levels of adrenaline
Increased consumption over time
Mild but highly addictive stimulant found in tobacco
Initial stimulant response is usually followed by mild depression which encourages
frequent use.
The biological consequences of
smoking
LUNGS
• Destroyed Cilia
• Cough
• Mucus collected in lungs
• Infected mucus
• Infections – Bronchitis
• Lung Cancer (caused by carcinogens in tar),
Emphysema (reduces surface area of alveoli,
inefficient gases exchange)
The biological consequences of
smoking
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• High blood pressure (caused by nicotine) –
• Increased risk for heart attacks
• Increased risk for stokes
• Blood becomes sticky (increased clotting)
• Red blood cells can’t carry oxygen due to carbon
monoxide boning with them hemoglobin
• Coronary heart disease
Effect of Caffeine
Short Term Effect
Long Term Effects
Enhancement of metal energy, alertness
and ability to concentrate
Can cause anxiety, irritability and
Acts as a diuretic, increasing volume of
urine can cause dehydration
Dependence: side effects or withdrawal
include headaches and nausea
Restlessness
Trembling/ shaking
Increased Heart Rate
Sleeplessness, insomnia
D.6 ANTIBACTERIALS
Historical Development of Penicillins
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qeZLLhx5kU
• Accidently discovered by Alexander Fleming as there was a
clear region around where no bacterial colonies were
growing around the mould
• Isolated by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain which
incidentally saved many lives in WW2 as treatment from
bacterial infections – found industrial methods to create;
did more drug testing (prove it was safe to use of humans)
• Structure determined by Dorothy Hodgkin as Penicillin G
• Produced by microorganisms to combat microorganisms
How Penicillins work
• Figure 1519 P.423
• Deactivating the proteins that a bacteria needs to
form a cell wall (transpeptidase)– prevents
formation of cell wall
• Increase uptake of water by bacteria
• Bacteria ruptures due to osmotic pressure
Effect of changing the Side Chain
• Changing the side chain will slightly change
the ranger of bacteria it is effective against
and how it is tolerated by the patients
• Semi-synthetic penicillin eg. Ampicillin
• Reducing occurrence of penicillin resistant
bacteria as the modified penicillins are able to
withstand the action of an enzyme
How the structure of penicillin is
modified to create new antibiotics
• Keeping the B-lactum the same and changing
the side chains by adding organic substances
and reactants
Board-spectrum vs Narrow-spectrum
• Board-spectrum Eg. Chest infections, skin
infections
• Narrow-spectrum eg. Bladder infections
• TB requires a cocktail of different antibacterial –
as many bacteria are extremely resistant to
penicillin so a mixture is used
• Over prescribing is an issue
Importance of patient compliance and
effect of penicillin over prescription
• Problem with the use of penicillin is bacterial
resistance
• Resistance bacteria produce an enzyme,
penicillinase which can open penicillin’s betalactam ring and render it inactive
• Eg. TB requires several drugs to combat to
prevent the rise of a super bug TB
Bacteria Mutation and Antibiotic
Resistance
• Bacteria can create a resistance to antibiotics
• If antibiotics do not kill all the bacteria (ie.
Leave one mutated bacteria living)
• One, strong bacteria can rapidly reproduce
asexually, increasing bacterial populations
• All bacteria are now resistance to antibiotics
• Hence, the infection is difficult to control
Beneficial Mutation
Increased resistance because of
misuse
• Over-prescription by doctors
• Patient compliance: patients not completing a
full course of penicillin or antibiotics
• Antibacterials used in animal feedstock even
when the animals do not have a disease –
antibacterials end up in the food chain
D.7 ANTIVIRALS
Bacteria vs Virus
Bacteria
Virus
Cell Wall
Protein Coat
Single stand of DNA (check!); more
complex DNA
One type of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
simpler DNA
Nucleus
No nucleus or cytoplasm
Self-repreducing
Reproduce and replicate (multiply) only in
living organisms
MRS GREN H
Do not feed, excrete or grow
Bacteria
• Microscopic unicellular organisms
• NO have a nucleus but has a circular
chromosome of DNA (plasmids)
• Have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm
• Some Bacteria carry out photosynthesis but
most feed off living or dead organisms
• Examples: Lactobacillus (rod-shaped:
produces yoghurt from milk), Pneumococcus
(spherical pathogen – causes pneumonia)
Viruses FIGURE 15.12 P.646
• Microscopic unicellular organisms (smaller than
bacteria)
• Parasitic – lives off other organisms and can infect
every type of them
• Wide variety of shapes and size, have no cellular
structure but has a protein coat: contains only
one type of nucleic acid, DNA or RNA
• Can reproduce only inside living cells
• A pathogenic example is HIV which causes AIDS
and immune system disorder
Reasons why it is hard to tackle viruses
• High Speed in reproduction and multiply
• Rapid Mutation – less susceptible to drugs
• Fast Spreading to all parts of the body before
symptoms arise
• Bacteria are more complex and can be killed or their
actions reduced by simple chemical agents but viruses
cannot be killed (only stopped by reproducing) and
must be targeted on a genetic level
• Hence flu vaccines are developed each year according
to the most abundant strain of virus around
How viruses replicate itself
• Using house cell’s metabolism
Ways in which antibiotics work
• Beta-lactum ring bonds with transpeptidase to
prevent bacteria from making normal cell
walls
• Interferes with the chemical activities
essential to bacteria’s life function
General information about antivirals
• Manufactured to be virus specific – not broad
• Not that many antivirals available
• Don’t destroy the virus but INHIBITS its
development
• Harmless to host
Ways in which antiviral drugs work
• Finding chemical ways to block enzyme
activity within the host cell, stopping the virus
and preventing replication in host cells –
hence ‘dying out’; Changes the cell membrane
which prevents virus from entering cell
• Altering the cell’s ribosomes (genetic material)
so the virus cannot use them to multiply
• Traps the virus inside the cell after its
reproduction
Difficulties associated with solving the
AIDS problem
1. The Virus destroys T-helper cells (certain type of
cell membrane of the white blood cells), the
very cells in the immune system that should be
defending the body against the virus
2. The virus tends to mutate very rapidly even
within a patient. It is thought that there is more
variation in HIV in a single patient than in
influenza virus worldwide in a year. These
variation means that the virus ‘escapes’ the
immune response because the patient has to
make a response to the new virus
Difficulties associated with solving the
AIDS problem
3. The virus often lies dormant within host cells so
the immune system has nothing to respond to
4. HIV has a similar metabolism to that of the
human cell making effective treatment with
antiviral drugs and vaccine development difficult
5. Control and treatment of HIV is controlled by the
high price of antiretroviral agents (very $$$)
6. ^ socio-economic reasons by high risk Countries
7. Cultural issues such as discrimination and stigma
D.8 DRUG ACTION
Importance of Geometrical Isomerism
CISPlatin
• In chemotherapeutic drugs, sometimes only one
of cis and trans of a drug can ‘work’ by correctly
disrupting the function of DNA in the cancer cells
preventing cell division
• Transplatin has NH3 too far apart to work
• Eg. Platinum complex such as cisplatin
𝑃𝑡(𝑁𝐻3 )2 𝐶𝑙2 and its derivative carboplatin only
the cis isomer has the groups in the correct
orientation to bind to the two adjacent guanine
Importance of Chirality, optical
isomerism
• Two enantiomers act differently in the presence
of a chiral environment (turn differently in plane
polarised light)
• When biologically synthesised within cells (in
vivo), only one enantiomer is produced
• When produced by synthetic processes outside
the body (in vitro), they yield a mixture of
enantiomers, racemate
• Then we must analyse the physiological effects of
each isomer to determine whether it should be
marketed as a racemate or single enantiomer
Importance of Chirality: Thalidomide
• Thalidomide which was prescribed and
marketed for morning sickness in women was
available as a racemate
• However, one enantiomer caused serious
deformities in the fetus and only the other
had the intended therapeutic effect of
inducing sleep and calmness
Importance of Beta-lactam ring action
of Penicillin
• The beta-lactam ring is strained at 90 degrees
bonds and is hence very reactive, it binds and
deactivates the transpeptidase enzyme which
is key for the construction of the cell wall of
the bacterium.
• This leads to a halting of bacterial cell wall
construction leading to death as the bacteria
takes up too much water and due to osomic
pressure, bursts
Increased potency of Diamorphine
(Heroin) compared to morphine
• Two polar hydroxyl groups are replaced by
two less polar ester groups
• Ester groups make heroin molecule more fatsoluble = hence more rapidly absorbed into
the CNS and the brain (crosses the blood-brain
barrier easier)
• Increasing potency and addictiveness
D.9 DRUG DESIGN
Compound Library
• Electronic database – theoretical drug synthesis
• Contains molecules which have been isolated or
synthesized and tested by pharmaceutical
companies for possible pharmaceutical
properties
• Information on compounds – name, structure, 3D
image, properties, biological activity
• Pharm companies use such libraries to identify
‘lead’ compound for a particular ‘target’
molecules such as an enzyme, DNA or a receptor
Combinatorial Chemistry
• Involves simultaneous automated chemical synthesis
• A large number of different but structurally related
compounds (all possible compounds) from a small
number of reactant molecules which are reacted with a
variety of reactants
• Uses “mix and split” technique and resin beads
(provides surface for the attachment and subsequent
reaction of successive reactant molecules – when
synthesis reaction is complete – produce is cleaved
from bead and released in sol.)
• Screen each product for its biological activity resulting
in a “combinatorial library”
Combinatorial Chemistry
• synthesis of large numbers of compounds using a variety of
starting materials;
automated process reacts a small number of compounds with a
variety of reagents;
(to produce) a large number of products;
mix-and-split technique;
small amounts of compounds are attached to resin/beads;
library of many different but related compounds;
compounds are tested for biological activity/effectiveness as
possible drugs;
parallel synthesis can produce smaller, more focused libraries;
3 max
• (ii) purification of the product is relatively easy / product can be
isolated by washing and filtration;
Parallel Chemistry/ Synthesis
• Synthesis of smaller but selected group of
compounds with a different compound in
each reaction vessels
• No need to be mixed and separated as
multiple experiments run in parallel
• Usually liquid or gas reactions
Difference
• Combinatorial: massive library generated in
the end of the many combinations of
molecules; produces a mixture of compounds
in same vessel
• Parallel: much smaller group of compounds
produced; produces a single product in each
reaction vessel
Solid-Phase Chemistry
• Used in combinatorial and parallel synthesis
• Solid resin bead – then product cleaved off
• Advantages: easy to rinse off as it is attached
to a solid bead
Mix and Split
• Different reactants are mixed and then split
into separate portions ie each portion has all
reactants
• Each portion with go on to do a different
reactant
• Separate portion are then mixed
Use of Computers
• Using combinatorial libraries
• 3D modelling software can be used to show
interaction between medicine and active site
on target molecules/ receptor without
actually making the medicine
• This allows the design of molecules with the
perfect fit and then attempt to chemically
produce them
Use of Computers
• Evaluation of biological and pharmaceutical
effects of new drugs, if the structure of a new
molecules is known
• Test effectiveness of binding
• Find the polarity of the molecule
• How quickly the body absorbs the drug
Modified Polarity to increase its
aqueous solubility
• Which facilitates its distribution around the
body
• Non-polar molecules with either acidic
(carboxylic acid) or basic (amine) groups the
polarity can be changed by converting them
into ionic salts
Chiral auxiliaries to form the desired
enantiomer
• Produce and synthesis ONLY the desired
enantiomer – NOT producing racemic mixture
then separating
• Chiral auxiliary gets attached to the starting
product – as it is chiral itself it only allows one
optical isomer to be synthesised – as it is
asymmetrical
• The chiral auxiliary is removed and recycled
MIND ALTERING DRUGS – SEE
SECTION D PDF
LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, THC
• Mind Altering drugs/ hallaucingogens produce
a qualitative change in thought, perception or
mood
• Cause vivid illusions and fantasies
• THC: at low doses get exited, at high doses it
produces change in perception, visual
hallucinations, no tolerance develops but
leads to moderate psychological dependence