Transcript APHG Studying!

APHG REVIEW BOOK IN A NUTSHELL
BY ALEX COLEMAN
CENTRAL PLACE THEORY
 Developed by Walter Christaller
 Saw the economic world as a spatial model
 City location and the level of economic exchange could be
analyzed using central places within hexagons which
overlapped
ARITHMETIC DENSITY
 Number of things per square unit of distance.
AGRICULTURAL DENSITY
 Number of people per square unit of land actively under
cultivation.
DIFFUSION PATTERNS
 Expansion
 Originates in a central places and expands outward.
 Hierarchal
 Originates in a first-order location then moves down to second-order
locations and then locally.
 Relocation
 Begins at a point of origin then crosses physical barrier.
 Contagious
 Begins at point of origin then moves outward to nearby locations
 Stimulus
 Underlying principle diffuses
MAP TYPES
 Topographic
 Contour lines of elevation
 Thematic
 Expresses particular subject with no land forms
 Chloropleth
 Uses color to show different geography
 Isoline
 Calculate data values between two points
 Dot Density
 Uses dots to show volume and density
 Flow Line
 Uses lines of different thickness to show movement
 Cartograms
 Uses simple geometric shapes to represent places
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL
 Theory of how population changes over time (has predictive
capability)
 Stage 1
 Subsistence farming, migration for food, livestock
 High BR and DR
 Sierra Leone, Liberia, Botswana
 Stage 2




Agricultural base for trade
RNI goes up significantly
BR high DR down
Ghana and Nepal
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL
(CNT’D)
 Stage 2 ½
 New industrial country
 Manufacturing begins
 BR down DR down
 Mexico and Malaysia
 Stage 3
 Transition to full manufacturing
 Most First World Countries
 BR down DR down because of services
 China and Brazil
 Stage 4
 Service based
 BR and DR as low as possible
 Zero population growth
 Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States
MALTHUSIAN THEORY
 Global population would exceed food production
 Didn’t happen because of agricultural revolutions
 Neo- Malthusians
 Sustainability: may be problems keeping up in the long-run
 Increasing per capita demand: the amount of food per person
has gone of greatly
 Natural resource depletion: nonrenewables will run out like
wood, minerals, and energy
POPULATION PYRAMIDS
 Population structures based on ages
 Shapes
 Triangle
 Fast growing
 Extended Triangle
 Moderate growth
 Column
 Slow growth
 Reduced pentagon
 Shrinking
 Gaps
 War
 Older on top
VON THUNEN’S MODEL OF THE
ISOLATED STATE
LAND RENT CURVE
CENTRAL PLACE THEORY
CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL
SECTOR MODEL
MULTIPLE-NUCLEI MODEL
GALATIC CITY MODEL
LATIN AMERICAN CITY MODEL
GRAVITY MODEL
 Mathematical model that is used in a number of different




types of spatial analysis.
Used to calculate transportation flow between two points.
Determine the area of influence of a city’s business
Estimate the flow of migrants to a particular place
Location1 Population x Location 2 Population/Distance²
GIS, GPS, AND REMOTE SENSING
 GIS
 Data layers that show different geographic features
 GPS
 Uses satellites to show your position on Earth
 Remote Sensing
 Arial photography used for GIS.
BIRTH RATE
 Total number of infants born living counted in a year
 Live births/ (Population/1000)
 Higher birth rates in LDCs
 Lower birth rates in MDCs
DEATH RATE
 The number of deaths per year divided by 1000.
 Deaths/(Population/1000)
 High death rates in LDCs
 Low death rates in MDCs
 Advances in technology have increased life expectancy
RATE OF NATURAL INCREASE (RNI)
 Difference in the amount of population change
 BR-DR/10
 Possible to be negative
DOUBLING TIME
 How long it would take for a country to double in size
 70/RNI
NET MIGRATION RATE
 Total migration
 (Number of Immigrants/(Population/1000))-(Number of
Emigrants/(Population/1000))
 Can be negative
THE DEMOGRAPHIC EQUATION
 ((BR-DR)+NMR)/10= Percentage Rate
TOTAL FERTILITY RATE
 Average number of children born to each woman age 15 to
45
 Number of children/Number of women
CENTROID
 Geographic center of a country
MIGRATION







Inter-regional or internal
 One region of a country to another
Transnational
 One country to another
Step migration
 People move up in hierarchy of location for work or other reasons
Chain migration
 Pioneers establish a new place which is a foothold for more migration
Periodic movement
 Annual or seasonal movement
Push factors
 War
 Environmental hazards
 High cost of land
Pull factors
 Employment
 Services
LANGUAGE
 Linguistic region
 A place where a language is spoken
 Can have different dialects within the region
 Lingua franca
 Bridge language like English or French
ANATOLIAN VS. KURGAN THEORY
 Anatolian
 Group of Indians migrated from India to Turkey and brought
their language and then to Europe
 Kurgan
 Group of Indians went from India to Central Asia then across
the Eurasian steppe to Western Europe.
RELIGION

Universalizing religions accept
 Accept followers from everywhere

Ethnic religions
 Only from specific ethnic groups

Animist
 Voodoo, Native American
 Worship nature
 Migration

Hindu-Buddhist
 Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
 Reincarnation
 Hindus: caste system, Buddhists: oppose the caste

Abrahamic
 Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
 Believe in God to a certain degree
 Common ancestors of Abraham
 Jesus Christ was a figurehead
 Islam: Five Pillars got them to Heaven
NATION AND ETHNICITY
 Nation
 Population represented by a single characteristic
 Culture group is another name
 Ethnicity
 Genetic heritage and political allegiance
 Race
 Genetic heritage and physical characteristics
ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM
 Friedrich Ratzel
 The physical geography shapes the culture
POSSIBILISM
 Carl Saur
 Cultures were partially shaped by the environment
INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL INDENTITY
 Internal
 Expressing cultural heritage within the area it originated
 External
 Expressing culture where they do not share the common
culture or geographic background
CULTURAL REGIONS
 Homogeneous characteristics of culture in an area
CULTURAL HEARTHS
 Origin of a given culture
 Nile River
 Mesopotamia
 The Indus Valley
 Mesoamerica
 The Andean Highland
 Northeast Chile
 West Africa
SEQUENT OCCUPANCE
 Replacing dominant cultures over time
 Lagos, Nigeria going from British control to Nigerian
ACCULTURATION
 Fully adopting the culture of the dominant population
CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION
 Media has combined cultures so much that the cultures have
lost their connection to their heritage and to nature
ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS
 Ethnic cleansing
 People of one ethnic group are eliminated by another
 Yugoslavian Croats and Serbs
 Genocide
 Large scale systematic killing of people of one ethnic group
 Holocaust
 Darfur
 Rwanda
UNITS OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
 Country
 An identifiable land area
 Nation
 A population with a single culture
 State
 A population under a single government
 Nation-state
 Single culture under a single government
 Japan, Iceland, Ireland
NATIONALISM
 Existing culture group that desires political representation or
independence
STATELESS NATION
 Culture group is not included or allowed to share in the state
political process
 Kurds in Iraq, Iran, and Syria
 Basques in northern Spain
 Hmong in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, and southern China
CONFEDERATION
 Several smaller states make up a federal government
 US, Australia, Brazil, Russia
MICROSTATES
 Sovereign states that are smaller but hold the same position
of larger states
 Dominica, Luxembourg, Malta, Singapore
MULTI-STATE NATIONS
 Supernationalism
 Two or more states align together for a common purpose
 UN, WTO, WHO, EU, NATO, OPEC, NAFTA
THE EUROPEAN UNION
 Free trade union
 Open borders
 Uniform currency
 One court for international issues
 One parliament
 World’s largest economy
 Constitution is not yet ratified
ENCLAVES AND EXCLAVES
 Enclave
 The minority group concentrated inside another country
 Ethnic neighborhood in Quebec
 Exclave
 Fragmented piece of sovereign territory separated by land from
the main part of the country
 Alaska
WATER BORDERS AT SEA
 Territorial sea:
 12 nautical-mile limit to sovereignty
 Exclusive Economic Zone:
 Given country only allowed to exploit economically within 200
miles
 High Seas
 Outside of 12 mile limit
BORDER TYPES
 Physical
 Natural borders like rivers or mountains
 Cultural
 Estimated boundaries between people groups
 Geometric
 Surveyed along lines of latitude and longitude
BORDER CONFLICTS
 Frontier
 Open and undefined territory
 Peaceful Resolutions
 1846 Oregon Treaty, Louisiana Purchase 1804
 Post-colonial boundary conflicts
 Conference of Berlin 1884 making international borders for
Africa
 Created the “Tyranny of the Map” because they did not consider
cultural boundaries genocides in Rwanda were because of these
issues
TERRITORIAL MORPHOLOGY

Compact
 Shape without irregularity
 Nigeria

Fragmented
 Broken into pieces
 Philippines

Elongated
 Stretched out, long
 Chile

Prorupt
 Panhandle
 Italy

Perforated
 Has a country inside of it
 South Africa

Landlocked
 Has no oceans or seas
 Switzerland
ANNEXATION
 Territory is added as a result of the land purchase or when it
is claimed through incorporation
GERRYMANDERING
 Attempt to try to stack votes to guarantee congressional
support for one particular party and “fix” elections
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY
 Supreme ruler runs the country
 Present day Saudi Arabia, Brunei, UAE
CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY
 Monarch can dismiss parliament, appoints judges, is
commander in chief, holds the monarchal estates.
 Great Britain, Belgium, Japan
COMMONWEALTH COUNTRIES
 Retain the British monarch as their head of state
 Canada, Jamaica, Australia
FREE-MARKET DEMOCRACY VS.
SOCIALISM
 Free-market does not try to put barriers on the economy (US
and UK)
 Republics
 Free of aristocratic or monarchal control
 Need separation of powers and flexible constitution
 Socialism tries to distribute everything and centrally run the
economy (USSR)
 Lacked incentive to produce and surplus of goods
GEOPOLITICS
 Global-scale relationships between sovereign states.
 Exam likes to ask about Cold War and relationships between
democracies and Communist countries
CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL
FORCES
 Centripetal
 Factors that hold together social and political fabric of the state
 Nationalism, well-liked leader, productive economy, effective social welfare
programs
 Centrifugal forces
 Factors that tear apart the social and political fabric of the state
 Cultural differences or conflicts, political corruption, failing economy, natural
disasters
 Yugoslavia had a good leader who identfied with everyone and he died and left
a power vacuum
BALKANIZATION AND IRREDENTISM
 Balkanization
 When the political landscape goes from a larger state to several
smaller states
 Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Austro- Hungarian Empire, USSR
 Irredentism
 When a minority group desires to break away from a multi-
ethnic state
 Or align itself with another state
 Chechnya, Timor, Ossetia
REUNIFICATION
 When nations were torn apart, but then come back together
 East and West Germany, return of the canal zone to Panama,
Yemen
HEARTLAND-RIMLAND MODEL
 Halford Mackinder
 Effort to define the global geopolitical landscape and
determine areas of potential future conflict
 Largest was Eastern European steppe in Russia at the time this
was called the Heartland
 Rimland was rest of the continents of Europe and Asia and parts
of Northern Africa
 Landwolves
 Eager to grab the area from the land (France)
 Seawolves
 Eager to grab the area from the sea (UK and Japan)
SHATTERBELT THEORY
 Saul Cohen
 Changed the Heartland to “Pivot Area”
 Changed the Rimland into the “Inner Crescent”
 Rest of the world was the “Outer Crescent” (US)
CONTAINMENT THEORY
 George Kennan
 Soviet Union would try to capture buffer states
 US would try to build a containment wall
 Worked out well at first Communism died in Greece and
Iran
 US feared domino effect that if one state fell then many
would follow
FARMING PRACTICES
 Intensive
 Lots of labor or small plot of land
 Extensive
 Limited labor or large plot of land
 Pastoralism
 Agriculture based on the seasonal movement of animals (nomadic
herding)
 Plant domestication
 Plant cultivatars used plants for food and used it to make clothing
 Subsistence farming
 Feeding only the producer’s household
 Extensive subsistence
 Low amounts of labor in less populated areas (South America)
FARMING PRACTICES (CNT’D)
 Non subsistence agriculture
 Cash-cropping to sell goods at markets
 Plantation
 Domestic consumption and exporting crops
 Bananas in Brazil, Sugar in Florida, Coffee in Ethiopia
 Communism and agriculture
 Communes resulted made of several families
HUMAN ECOLOGY
 How humans interact with nature
TYPES OF CROPPING
 Crop rotation
 One crop is planted on a plot of land and then switched to another
plot later
 Multi-cropping
 Planting one or more than one crop on the same land
 Sustainable yield
 Amount of crops or animals that can be raised without endangering
environment or too many expenses
 Non-food crops
 Textiles, animal feed, ethanol, biodiesel
 Shifting cultivation
 Slash and burn in rainforests
NEGATIVES OF CROPPING
 Extensive pastoralism
 Shifting animal herds between grazing pastures
 Overgrazing
 Too much grazing has led to dry grassland being eaten away
 Desertification
 Any human process that turns a vegetated environment into a
desert-like landscape
 Soil salinization
 Evaporation of water trapping salt on the surface
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
First
 Vegetative planting
 Plants grown together
 Seed agriculture
 Fertilized seeds were planted together
 Animal domestication
 Breeding of animals for specific purposes
 Size of farms
 Small, mainly subsistence
 Columbian Exchange (popular on AP exams)
 Maize, peppers, potatoes, tomatoes, yucca, tobacco, rubber, peanuts,
chocolate, and turkeys to Old World
 Wheat, rice, coffee, apples, citrus, horses, cattle, hogs, chickens,
sheep, goats, and diseases to the New World
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
Second
 Mid- 1800s to early 1900s
 Developed
 Hybrid plants
 Fertilizers
 Pesticides
 Machines such as trucks, tractors, pumps, and trailers
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
Third
 Improvements
 Genetic engineering
 Development of vaccines, antibiotics, and growth hormones
 Factory farming
 Agribusiness
 Corporate agriculture
 Large scale extensive farms controlled by one company
 Seeing the end of the family farm in America
SPECIALIZED AGRICULTURE
 Natural foods emerging
 Non genetically modified foods (GMOs)
 Organics
 Hormone-free
 Grass-fed beef
 Alternative livestock
 Lamb, bison, llamas, goose, and duck
 Fish Farming
 Wineries
SECTORS OF PRODUCTION
 Primary
 Agriculture, mining, energy, forestry, fisheries
 Secondary
 Processing of raw materials (manufacturing)
 Tertiary (services)
 Transportation, wholesaling, retailing of the finished goods
 Quaternary
 Wholesaling, finance, banking, insurance, real estate, advertising, and
marketing
 Quinary production
 Retailing, tourism, entertainment, and communication, government,
or education, and utilities
LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT
 First World
 Industrialized and service based
 Free markets
 High level of productivity
 High quality of life
 Second World
 Communist countries
 Centrally planned economies
 Third World
 Mainly agricultural
 Low levels of productivity
 Low quality of life
 Fourth World
 Third World with economic crisis
 Fifth World
 Third World with no government
NEWLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES
 Third world states that have made a shift from agriculture to
manufacturing
 Mexico, Brazil, Dominican Republic, Nigeria, China, Vietnam,
India
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE
 Country has the ability to produce a good or service at less
cost than other states
ASIAN TIGERS
 Old Asian Tigers
 Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore
 Developed because of foreign aid during the 50s, 60s, and 70s
 New Asian Tigers
 China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam
 Developed because of foreign direct investment during the 80s
and 90s
 Growth possible because of cheap land, labor, and resources;
and a lack of environmental regulations
ECONOMIC MEASURES OF
DEVELOPMENT
 GDP: total volume of a country’s economy
 Good+ Services
 GNI: dollar value of all goods and services produced in a country
plus the value of exports minus imports
 Goods+ Services+(Exports-Imports)
 Trade surplus
 Exports>Imports
 Trade deficit
 Exports<Imports
 GDP per capita
 GDP/Population
 GNI per capita
 GNI/Population
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX
 Designed by the UN to measure the level of development of
states based on
 GDP per capita, the adult literacy rate, average level of
education, and total life expectancy
 Score is indexed from .0-1.0
 Intent is to provide a more balanced measure of development
OTHER MEASUREMENTS
 The Gini coefficient
 Measures the difference between the rich and the poor
population groups on a scale of 0-100
 The Gender-Related Development Index
 Compares men and women much of the way that HDI is
calculated
ROSTOW’S STAGES OF GROWTH
 Walter Rostow
 5 stages of growth
 Traditional society: focused on primary production
 Preconditions for takeoff: leadership invests in infrastructure
more technology is used
 Takeoff: begins to shift focus to industry
 Drive to maturity: technology advances, industry grows rapidly,
workers become skilled
 Age of mass consumption: highly specialized production like
cars or energy, technology knowledge high, education levels are
high, agriculture mechanized
DEPENDENCY THEORY
 Most LDCs are dependent on MDCs to provide employment
 Prebisch Thesis
 Detailed the dependency of the Third World economy on First
World loans and investments to pay for their infrastructure
 Claimed that LDCs could never break the bonds of their
dependence because they could never manufacture for
themselves or make any extra money
BREAKING THE CYCLE OF
DEPENDENCY
 LDC programs that try to break free from MDC control
 Internalization of economic capital
 Requires companies to deposit profits from the factories in LDC banks and
reinvest locally
 Import substitution
 Instead of buying First World produced consumer-products, they would buy
from LDC factories
 Nationalization of natural resource-based industries
 Instead of allowing foreign companies to own resources, local governments
would
 Profit-sharing agreements
 Foreign companies agree to share part of the profits they get with the
governments
 Technology development programs
 Use limited funds to invest in technological advances and worker training
OTHER DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES
 Tourism
 Brings in a good deal of money from foreigners
 Ecotourism has become very popular through rain forests,
reefs, and savannahs
 Free trade agreements
 Improve international trade and boost economies
 Free-market reforms
 Allowing people to trade freely from a country, abolishing
Communism
THEORY OF LOCATION
 Alfred Weber
 Determines the optimal factory locations
 Bulk-reducing manufacturing: close to the inputs (limestone,
coal, and water)
 Bulk-gaining manufacturing: close to the consumers (cars)
FORDIST VS. POST-FORDIST
PRODUCTION
 Fordist
 Relied on a single company owning all the aspects of production
 Post-Fordist
 Companies now dependent on many different manufacturers to
build parts of cars
RETAIL LOCATION THEORY
 Threshold
 Minimum number of people required to support a business
 Range
 Maximum distance people are willing to travel to gain access to
the service
 Spatial margin of profitability
 Area where local demand for the service maximizes profit
AGGLOMERATION AND
DEGLOMERATION
 Agglomeration
 Concentration of human activities in a cluster or around a
central place
 Agglomeration economies
 Find firms with related or similar products together and share
in the advantages of skilled labor, specialized suppliers, and
service providers
 Deglomeration
 When a location is overloaded with similar firms or services
SUBURBAN SPRAWL
 Sprawl
 Expansion of housing, transportation, and commercial
development to undeveloped land on the urban periphery
 Anti-growth movements
 Push land laws to limit the growth in suburban areas
 Growth boundaries
 Set minimums for lot sizes of homes so they do not become
packed in by the growth
EDGE CITIES
 CBDs that have grown in the suburbs
CITY TYPES
 Colonial cities
 Originated in colonial trade retained their European-style archetecture
 Fall-line cities
 Ports that were upstream to the point where ocan ships could no longer navigate
(break-in-bulk point): Boston, Albany, Baltamore
 Medieval Cities
 Urban centers that date back to the Renaissance: Rome, Paris, London, Kyoto,
Beijing
 Gateway cities
 Places where immigrants have made their way into a country: New York, Miami,
Toronto
 Entrepot
 Port city in which goods are shipped in at one price and shipped out for another
 Megacities
 More than 10 million people: Tokyo, New York, Mexico City
 Megalopolis
 Urbanized area of two or more cities that merge together: Northeastern US
CITY TYPES (CNT’D)
 World City
 Global center of finance
 First-order: New York, London, Tokyo
 Second-order: Los Angeles, Washington DC, Chicago, Frankfort, Paris
 Third-order: San Francisco, Miami, Sydney
 Primate city
 Largest city is more than twice the size of the second largest
RANK SIZE RULE
 The nth largest city is 1/n the size of the country’s largest
city
UBRAN SOCIETY
 Segregation
 Ethnic neighborhoods have sprung up: Chinatown
 Redlining
 Designing homes so that African Americans cannot buy in that area
 Restrictive covenants
 Putting “whites only” clauses in home agreements
 Racial steering
 Real estate agents encouraging African Americans to only buy in certain
areas
GENTRIFICATION
 The economic reinvestment in existing real estate
 Historical renovation
 Has had the negative effect of driving lower-class citizens out
because of higher prices
URBAN SUSTAINABILITY
 Many problems to address
 Balancing taxes and maintaining municipal services
 Expensive schools
 Traffic congestion
 Pollution
 Mass transit can fix some of these problems
 New downtown housing
 Mixed-use buildings
 Both hosing and commercial space (New Urbanization)