Transcript ethics

ETHICS, PROFESSIONALISM AND
CRITICISM OF THE SOURCES
MIMA LECTURE
Gordana Dodig-Crnkovic
School of Innovation, Design and Engineering
Mälardalen University
26 August 2009
1
Links

http://www.idt.mdh.se/personal/gdc/

http://www.mdh.se/university/organization/boards/Eth
ics
2
Professional Ethics Course

Information about the course:
http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/cd5590
http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/ethics/
[Website provides ethics resources including case studies and
contextualized scenarios in applied/professional ethics, working
examples of applied ethical problems used in teaching to highlight
relevant ethical principles, materials on informed consent,
confidentiality, assessment, privacy, trust and similar. ]
3
CONTENT
– Identifying Ethical Issues
Basic Moral Orientations
Ethical Relativism, Absolutism, and Pluralism
Immanuel Kant The Ethics of Duty (Deontological Ethics)
Utilitarianism
Rights
Justice
The Ethics of Character: Virtues and Vices
Egoism
Moral Reasoning and Gender
Environmental Ethics
 Professional Issues
 Plagiarism
 Criticism of the Sources
 Conclusions
4
Identifying Ethical
Issues
Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.
Director, The Values Institute
University of San Diego
5
Ethics and Morality
The terms ethics and morality are often used
interchangeably - indeed, they usually can mean the
same thing, and in casual conversation there isn't a
problem with switching between one and the other.
However, there is a distinction between them in
philosophy!
6
Ethics and Morality
Etymology
Morality and ethics have same roots, mores which
means manner and customs from the Latin and
etos which means custom and habits from the Greek.
Robert Louden, Morality and Moral Theory
7
Ethics and Morality
Strictly speaking, morality is used to refer to what we
would call moral standards and moral conduct while
ethics is used to refer to the formal study of those
standards and conduct. For this reason, the study of
ethics is also often called "moral philosophy."
8
Ethics and Morality

Morality: first-order set of beliefs and practices about
how to live a good life.

Ethics: a second-order, conscious reflection on the
adequacy of our moral beliefs.
9
ETHICS
Philosophers commonly distinguish:
descriptive ethics, the factual study of the
ethical standards or principles of a group or
tradition;
normative ethics, the development of theories
that systematically denominate right and
wrong actions;
applied ethics, the use of these theories to form
judgments regarding practical cases; and
meta-ethics, careful analysis of the meaning
and justification of ethical claims
Source: www.ethicsquality.com/philosophy.html
10
SOCIETY VALUES
ETHICS
LAW
MORAL
11
Identifying Moral Issues

Moral concerns are unavoidable in life.

They are not always easy to identify and define.
12
Ethics as an Ongoing Conversation


Professional discussions of ethical issues in journals.
We come back to ideas again and again, finding new
meaning in them.
See http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/ethics.htm
13
The Focus of Ethics

Ethics as the Evaluation of Other People’s Behavior
– We are often eager to pass judgment on others

Ethics as the Search for Meaning and Value in Our
Own Lives
14
Ethics as the Evaluation of Other
People’s Behavior






Ethics often used as a weapon
Hypocrisy
Possibility of knowing other people
The right to judge other people
The right to intervene
Judging and caring
15
Ethics as the Search for Meaning
and Value in Our Own Lives



Positive focus
Aims at discerning what is good
Emphasizes personal responsibility for one’s own life
16
What to Expect from Ethics



Identificationa and description of an issue
Explanation
Support in deliberation
17
The Point of Ethical Reflection

Ethics as the evaluation of other people’s behavior

Ethics as the search for the meaning of our own lives
18
Basic Moral
Orientations
19
On what basis do we make moral
decisions? (1)

Divine Command Theories -- “Do what the Bible tells
you” or the Will of God

Utilitarianism -- “Make the world a better place”

Virtue Ethics -- “Be a good person”

The Ethics of Duty -- “Do your duty”

Immanuel Kant’s Moral Theory

Ethical Egoism -- “Watch out for #1”
20
On what basis do we make moral
decisions? (2)

The Ethics of Natural and Human Rights -- “...all
people are created ...with certain unalienable rights”

Social Contract Ethics

Moral Reason versus Moral Feeling

Evolutionary Ethics
21
Divine Commands

Being good is equivalent to doing
whatever the Bible--or the Qur’an or
some other sacred text or source of
revelation--tells you to do.

“What is right” equals “What God tells
me to do.”
22
Utilitarianism
(Consequentialism)


Hedonistic utilitarianism: Seeks to
reduce suffering and increase pleasure
or happiness
Epicurus (341-270 BC) Greek
“We count pleasure as the originating principle and the goal for the
blessed life”. (Letter to Menoeceus)

Epicurus
(341-270 BC)
Frances Hutcheson (1694-1747) Irish
“The action is best, which procures the greatest happiness for the
greatest number; and that worst, which in like manner, occasions
misery.” (An Inquiry Concerning Moral Good and Evil, 3.8)


Bentham’s Utilitarian Calculus
Mill’s Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
1806-1873
“Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote [general]
happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of [general]
happiness. (Utilitarianism, 2)

http://www.utilitarism.net/ (in Swedish)
Jeremy Bentham
(1748-1832)
23
Virtue Ethics

One of the oldest moral theories.
Ancient Greek epic poets and playwrights Homer
and Sophocles describe the morality of their
heroes in terms of virtues and vices.

Plato - cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage,
temperance, and justice. Even accepted by
Plato (427-347 BCE)
early Christian theologians.

Aristotle: The Nichomachean Ethics

Morality is a matter of being a good
person, which involves having virtuous
character traits.

Seeks to develop individual character
Aristotle (384-322 BCE.)
24
The Ethics of Duty
(Deontological* Ethics)

Ethics is about doing your duty.
– Cicero (stoic): On duties (De Officiis)
– http://www.stoics.com/cicero_book.html
– Medieval philosophers:
duties to God, self and others
– Kant: only moral duties to self and others
– Samuel von Pufendorf (1632-1694):
moral duties spring from our instinctive drive for survival – we should be
sociable in order to survive.

Intuitionism: we don’t logically deduce
moral duties, we know them as thy are!

For each duty there is a corresponding
virtue.
* ‘deon’ = duty
Marcus Tullius Cicero
(106 - 43) BC
Immanuel Kant
1724-1804
25
Immanuel Kant’s Moral Theory

Human reason makes moral
demands on our lives

The categorical imperative: Act
so that the maxim [determining
motive of the will] may be
capable of becoming a universal
law for all rational beings."

We have moral responsibility to
develop our talents
Immanuel Kant
1724-1804
26
Ethical Egoism
Says the only person to look out for is yourself
Ayn Rand, The Ethics of Selfishness
Well known for her novel, especially Atlas Shrugged



 Ayn
Rand sets forth the moral principles
of “Objectivism”, the philosophy that holds
that man's life--the life proper to a rational
being--as the standard of moral values.
It regards altruism as incompatible with
man's nature, with the requirements of his
survival, and with a free society.

shrug - To raise (the shoulders), especially as a gesture of doubt, disdain, or
indifference
27
The Ethics of Rights



The most influential moral
notion of the past two centuries
Established minimal conditions
of human decency
Human rights: rights that all humans
supposedly possess.

natural rights: some rights are
grounded in the nature rather than in
governments.

moral rights, positive rights,
legal rights, civil rights
28
The Ethics of Rights

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
right from nature implies a liberty to
protect myself from attack in any way
that I can.

John Locke (1632-1704)
Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679)
principal natural rights: life, health,
liberty and possessions.
John Locke
(1632-1704)
29
Evolutionary Ethics





Human social behavior is an extended development
of biological evolution.
Evolutionary ethics: moral behavior is that which
tends to aid in human survival.
Darwin: Origin of Species focuses on the evolutionary
mechanisms of nonhuman animals.
Biologists and philosophers of nineteenth century
attempted to frame morality as an extension of the
evolutionary biological process.
Problem of the theory: what is progress? What is
good? Any signs of moral improvement since Plato?
30
Moral Reason versus Moral Feeling





Morality is strictly a matter of rational
judgment: Samuel Clarke (1675-1729)
Since time of Plato: moral truths exist
in a spiritual realm.
Moral truths like mathematical truths
are eternal.
Morality is strictly a matter of feeling
(emotion): David Hume (1711-1729)
We have a moral sense
Samuel Clarke
(1675-1729)
David Hume
(1711-1729)
31
Ethical Relativism,
Absolutism,
and Pluralism
Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.
Director, The Values Institute
University of San Diego
32
Classical Ethical/Cultural Relativism
The Greek Skeptics (1)

Xenophanes (570-475 BCE)
“Ethiopians say that their gods are flat-nosed and dark, Thracians
that theirs are blue-eyed and red-haired. If oxen and horses and
lions had hands and were able to draw with their hands and do the
same things as men, horses would draw the shapes of gods to
look like horses and oxen to look like ox, and each would make
the god’s bodies have the same shape as they themselves had.”

The historian Heroditus(484-425 BCE)
“Everyone without exception believes his own native customs, and
the religion he was brought up in, to be the best.”
33
Classical Ethical/Cultural Relativism
The Greek Skeptics (2)

Sextus Empiricus (fl. 200 CE)
Gives example after example of moral standards that
differ from one society to another, such as attitudes
about homosexuality, incest, cannibalism, human
sacrifice, the killing of elderly, infanticide, theft,
consumption of animal flesh…
Sextus Empiricus concludes that we should doubt the
existence of an independent and universal standard of
morality, and instead regard moral values as the result
of cultural preferences.
34
Later Ethical Relativism (1)

French philosopher Michael de Montaigne (1533-1592):
Custom has the power to shape every possible kind of
cultural practice. Although we pretend that morality is a
fixed feature of nature, morality too is formed through
custom.

Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776)
“fashion, vogue, custom, and law are the chief
foundation of all moral determinations”
35
Later Ethical Relativism (2)

The fact of moral diversity

We should not pass judgment on practices in other
cultures when we don’t understand them

Sometimes reasonable people may differ on what’s
morally acceptable
36
Insights of Ethical Relativism
Ethical relativism has several important insights:
 The fact of moral diversity
 The need for tolerance and understanding
 We should not pass judgment on practices in other
cultures when we don’t understand them
 Sometimes reasonable people may differ on what’s
morally acceptable
37
Ethical Relativism: Limitations

Presupposes an epistemological solipsism*

Is unhelpful in dealing with overlaps of cultures-precisely where we need help.
– Commerce and trade
– Media
– World Wide Web
[*Solipsism - belief in self as only reality: the belief
that the only thing somebody can be sure of is that he
or she exists, and that true knowledge of anything
else is impossible]
38
Ethical Relativism:
Overlapping Cultures, 1


Ethical relativism
suggests that we let
each culture live as it
sees fit.
This is only feasible
when cultures don’t
have to interact with
one another.
39
Ethical Relativism:
Overlapping Cultures, 2

The challenge of the
coming century is
precisely overlapping
cultures:
– Multinational corporations
– International media--BBC,
MTV, CNN
– International sports-Olympics
– World Wide Web
40
Ethical Relativism:
Overlapping Cultures, 3

The actual situation in
today’s world is much
closer to the diagram at
the right.
41
Ethical Relativism:
Our Global Village, 5

What if our world was a village
of 100 people?
– 58 would be Asians, 15 Europeans, 13 would come from
the Western Hemisphere, 12 would be Africans
– 70 would be non-white
– 67 would be non-Christian (33 Christians; 18 Moslems; 14
Hindus; 6 Buddhists; 5 atheists; 3 Jews; 24 other.)
– 16 would speak Chinese; 8 English; 8 Hindi; 6 Spanish; 6
Russian; and 5 Arabic.
– 50 % of the wealth would be held by 6 people.
– 70 could not read and
– only one would have a university education.
http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/103/3areaoutline.htm
42
Ethical Relativism:
A Self-Defensive Position


Ethical relativism maintains that we cannot make
moral judgments about other cultures
The corollary of this is that we are protected in
principle against the judgments made by other
cultures
43
How Much Dressed? Naked?
Rembrandt
Monk Reading, 1661
Fencer – protective suit
Apollo Belvedere 320 BCE
Taliban law requires women in
Afghanistan to wear a chador or
burqa that covers the face and
entire body.
A proper dress?
Amazonian
indigenous woman
with child
From the solitude of the
Holy Cross Abbey in
Virginia, a monk works
on the Internet,
21th century
Nuns uniforms
44
How Much Dressed? Naked?
Dieric Bouts - Madonna and Child
Leonardo da Vinci
Lady with an Ermine 1483-90
Holbein’s Family 1528
45
Arguments Against Ethical
Relativism

There Are Some Universals in Codes of Behavior
across Cultures
Three core common values:
– caring for children
– truth telling (trust) and
– prohibitions against murder
The society must guard against killing, abusing the
young, lying etc. that are at its own peril. Were the
society not to establish some rules against such
behaviors, the society itself would cease to exist.
46
Ethical Objectivism


The view that moral principles have
objective validity whether or not
people recognize them as such, that
is, moral rightness or wrongness does
not depend on social approval, but on
such independent considerations as
whether the act or principle promotes
human flourishing or ameliorates
human suffering.
What is moral depends on the fabric
of human nature.
Plato (427-347 BCE)
Immanuel Kant
1724-1804
47
Ethical Absolutism/Universalism

Ethical Absolutism:
Morality is eternal and unchanging and holds for all
rational beings at all times and places. In other
words, moral right and wrong are fundamentally the
same for all people. (Morality is considered different
than mere etiquette).
There is only one correct answer to every moral
problem. A completely absolutist ethic consists of
absolute principles that provide an answer for every
possible situation in life, regardless of culture.
48
Ethical Absolutism



Absolutism comes in many
versions--including the
divine right of kings
Absolutism is less about
what we believe and more
about how we believe it
Common elements:
– There is a single Truth
– Their position embodies that
truth
Louis XIV
(1638 – 1715)
Louis the Great, The Sun King
49
Ethical Absolutism

Ethical absolutism gets some things right
– We need to make judgments
– Certain things are intolerable

But it gets some things wrong, including:
– Our truth is the truth
– We can’t learn from others
50
Ethical Pluralism (1)

Combines insights of both relativism and absolutism:
– The central challenge: how to live together with
differing and conflicting values
– Fallibilism: recognizes that we might be mistaken
– Sees disagreement as a possible strength
51
Ethical Pluralism (2)

Moral pluralists maintain that there are moral truths,
but they do not form a body of coherent and
consistent truths in the way that one finds in the
science or mathematics. Moral truths are real, but
partial. Moreover, they are inescapably plural. There
are many moral truths, not just one–and they may
conflict with one another.
52
Ethical Pluralism (3)


Pluralism is the cultural manifestation of ethical
individualism; it is implied by the respect for the
human being, for what it means to be human.
We have differing moral perspectives, but we must
often inhabit a common world.
53
Ethical Pluralism (4)
Ethical pluralism offers three categories to describe
actions:
 Prohibited: those actions which are not seen as
permissible at all
– Absolutism sees the importance of this
 Tolerated: those actions and values in which
legitimate differences are possible
– Relativism sees the importance of this
 Ideal: a moral vision of what the ideal society would
be like
54
Ethical Pluralism (5)

For each action or
policy, we can place it
in one of three regions:
– Ideal--Center
– Permitted--Middle
• Respected
• Tolerated
– Prohibited--Outside
55
Five Questions





What is the present state?
What is the ideal state?
What is the minimally acceptable state?
How do we get from the present to the minimally
acceptable state?
How do we get from the minimum to the ideal state?
56
Immanuel Kant
THE ETHICS OF DUTY
(Deontological* Ethics)
* ‘deon’ = duty
57
Living by Rules


Most of us live by rules much of
the time.
Some of these are what Kant
called Categorical Imperatives.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
58
Categorical Imperatives

Always act in such a way that the maxim of your
action can be willed as a universal law of humanity.
--Immanuel Kant
59
The Ethics of Respect (1)
One of Kant’s most lasting contributions to moral
philosophy was his emphasis on the notion of respect
(Achtung).
60
The Ethics of Respect (2)


Respect has become a fundamental moral concept in
contemporary West
– There are rituals of respect in almost all cultures.
Two central questions:
– What is respect?
– Who or what is the proper object of respect?
61
Kant on Respect
“Act in such a way that you always treat
humanity, whether in your own person or in
the person of any other, never simply as a
means, but always at the same time as an
end.”
62
Kant on Respecting Persons



Kant brought the notion of respect (Achtung) to the
center of moral philosophy for the first time.
To respect people is to treat them as ends in
themselves. He sees people as autonomous, i.e., as
giving the moral law to themselves.
The opposite of respecting people is treating them as
mere means to an end.
63
Using People as Mere Means

The Tuskegee Syphilis
Experiments
– More than four hundred African
American men infected with
syphilis went untreated for four
decades in a project the
government called the Tuskegee
Study of Untreated Syphilis in the
Negro Male.
– Continued until 1972
64
Treating People as Ends in
Themselves
What are the characteristics of treating people as ends
in themselves?
 Giving them relevant and accurate information
 Allowing them freedom of choice
65
Additional Cases





Plant Closing
Firing Long-Time Employees
Medical Experimentation on Prisoners
Medical Donations by Prisoners
Medical Consent Forms
66
What Is the Proper Object of
Respect?


For Kant, the proper object of respect is the will.
Hence, respecting a person involves issues related to
the will--knowledge and freedom.
Other possible objects of respect:
–
–
–
–
Feelings and emotions
The dead
Animals
The natural world
67
Self-Respect

Is lack of proper self-respect a moral failing?

The Deferential* Wife
– See article by Tom Hill, “Servility and Self-Respect”
*Deferential = Respectful, considerate
68
Self-Respect

Aristotle and Self-Love
– What is the difference between self-respect
and self-love? Clearly, there is at least a
difference in the affective element.
69
The Kantian Heritage
What Kant Helped Us to See
Clearly

The Admirable Side of Acting from Duty
– The person of duty remains committed, not matter how
difficult things become.

The Evenhandedness of Morality
– Kantian morality does not play favorites.

Respecting Other People
– The notion of treating people as ends in themselves is
central to much of modern ethics.
70
The Kantian Heritage
Critique of Kant´s Deontology


The Neglect of Moral Integration
– The person of duty can have deep and conflicting
inclinations and this does not decrease moral
worth—indeed, it seems to increase it in Kant’s
eyes.
The Role of Emotions
– For Kant, the emotions are always suspect
because they are changeable.
71
The Kantian Heritage
Critique of Kant´s Deontology

The Place of Consequences in the Moral Life
– In order to protect the moral life from the changing
of moral luck, Kant held a very strong position that
refused to attach moral blame to individuals who
were acting with good will, even though some
indirect bad consequences could be foreseen.
72
The Kantian Heritage
Conclusion
Overall, after two hundred years, Kant remains an
absolutely central figure in contemporary moral
philosophy, one from whom we can learn much even
when we disagree with him.
73
Utilitarianism
74
Basic Insights of Utilitarianism

The purpose of morality is to make the world a better
place.

We should do whatever will bring the most benefit to
all of humanity.
75
The Purpose of Morality


The utilitarian has a simple answer to the question of
why morality exists at all:
– The purpose of morality is to guide people’s actions
in such a way as to produce a better world.
Consequently, the emphasis in utilitarianism is on
consequences, not intentions.
(At times, the road to hell is pawed with good intentions)
76
Fundamental Imperative

The fundamental imperative of utilitarianism is:
Always act in the way that will produce the greatest
overall amount of good in the world.
77
The Emphasis on the Overall
Good

Utilitarianism is a demanding moral position that often
asks us to put aside self-interest for the sake of the
whole.
– It always asks us to do the most, to maximize
utility, not to do the minimum.
– It asks us to set aside personal interest.
78
The Dream of Utilitarianism:
Bringing Scientific Certainty to
Ethics

Utilitarianism offers a powerful vision of the moral life,
one that promises to reduce or eliminate moral
disagreement.
– If we can agree that the purpose of morality is to
make the world a better place; and
– If we can scientifically assess various possible
courses of action to determine which will have the
greatest positive effect on the world; then
– We can provide a scientific answer to the question
of what we ought to do.
79
Standards of Utility:
Intrinsic Value



Many things have instrumental value, that is, they
have value as means to an end.
However, there must be some things which are not
merely instrumental, but have value in themselves.
This is what we call intrinsic value.
What has intrinsic value? Four principal candidates:
– Pleasure - Jeremy Bentham
– Happiness - John Stuart Mill
– Ideals - George Edward Moore
– Preferences - Kenneth Arrow
80
Jeremy Bentham
1748-1832

Bentham believed that we
should try to increase the
overall amount of pleasure in
the world.
81
Pleasure


Definition: The enjoyable
feeling we experience
when a state of
deprivation is replaced by
fulfillment.
Advantages
– Easy to quantify
– Short duration
– Bodily

Criticisms
– Came to be known
as “the pig’s
philosophy”
– Ignores spiritual
values
– Could justify living on
a pleasure machine
or “happy pill”
82
John Stuart Mill
1806-1873


Bentham’s godson
Believed that happiness, not
pleasure, should be the
standard of utility.
83
Happiness

Advantages
– A higher standard,
more specific to
humans
– About realization of
goals

Disadvantages
– More difficult to
measure
– Competing
conceptions of
happiness
84
Ideal Values



G. E. Moore suggested that we
should strive to maximize ideal
values such as freedom, knowledge,
justice, and beauty.
The world may not be a better place
with more pleasure in it, but it
certainly will be a better place with
more freedom, more knowledge,
more justice, and more beauty.
Moore’s candidates for intrinsic good
remain difficult to quantify.
G. E. Moore
1873-1958
85
Preferences

Kenneth Arrow, a Nobel Prize
winning Stanford economist,
argued that what has intrinsic
value is preference satisfaction.

The advantage of Arrow’s
approach is that, in effect, it lets
people choose for themselves
what has intrinsic value.
It simply defines intrinsic value as
whatever satisfies an agent’s
preferences. It is elegant and
pluralistic.
KENNETH J. ARROW
Stanford University
Professor of Economics (Emeritus)
86
May this help? Lets make everyone
happy!
Happy pill as a universal solution?
87
The Utilitarian Calculus


Math and ethics finally merged: all
consequences must be measured
and weighed!
Units of measurement:
– Hedons: positive
– Dolors: negative
88
What do we calculate?

Hedons/dolors defined in terms of
– Pleasure
– Happiness
– Ideals
– Preferences
89
What do we calculate?

For any given action, we must calculate:
– How many people will be affected, negatively
(dolors) as well as positively (hedons)
– How intensely they will be affected
– Similar calculations for all available alternatives
– Choose the action that produces the greatest
overall amount of utility (hedons minus dolors)
90
How much can we quantify?


Pleasure and preference satisfaction are easier to
quantify than happiness or ideals
Two distinct issues:
– Can everything be quantified?
The danger: if it can’t be counted, it doesn’t count.
– Are quantified goods necessarily commensurable?
Are a fine dinner and a good night’s sleep
commensurable?
91
“…the problems of three little people don’t
amount to a hill of beans in this crazy
world.”
Utilitarianism doesn’t always
have a cold and calculating
face—we perform utilitarian
calculations in everyday life.
92
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
1. Responsibility


Utilitarianism suggests that we are responsible for all
the consequences of our choices.
The problem is that sometimes we can not foresee
consequences of other people’s actions that are
taken in response to our own acts. Are we
responsible for those actions, even though we don’t
choose them or approve of them?
93
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
2. Integrity


Utilitarianism often demands that we put aside selfinterest. Sometimes this may mean putting aside our
own moral convictions.
Integrity may involve certain identity-conferring
commitments, such that the violation of those
commitments entails a violation of who we are at our
core.
94
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
3. Intentions

Utilitarianism is concerned almost exclusively about
consequences, not intentions.
– There is a version of utilitarianism called “motive
utilitarianism,” developed by Robert Adams, that
attempts to correct this.
95
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
4. Moral Luck

By concentrating exclusively on consequences,
utilitarianism makes the moral worth of our
actions a matter of luck. We must await the final
consequences before we find out if our action
was good or bad.

This seems to make the moral life a matter of
chance, which runs counter to our basic moral
intuitions.
96
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
5. Who does the calculating?

Historically, this was an issue for the British in India.
The British felt they wanted to do what was best for
India, but that they were the ones to judge what that
was.
– See Ragavan Iyer, Utilitarianism and All That

Typically, the count differs depending on who does
the counting
97
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
6. Who is included?

When we consider the issue of consequences, we
must ask who is included within that circle.

Classical utilitarianism has often claimed that we
should acknowledge the pain and suffering of
animals and not restrict the calculus just to human
beings.
98
Concluding Assessment

Utilitarianism is most appropriate for policy decisions,
as long as a strong notion of fundamental human
rights guarantees that it will not violate rights of
minorities, otherwise it is possible to use to justify
outvoting minorities.
99
Rights
100
Rights:
Changing Western History

Many of the great documents of the last two centuries
have centered around the notion of rights.
– The Bill of Rights
– The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
– The United Nation Declaration of Human Rights
101
Human Rights
After the King John of England violated a number
of ancient laws and customs by which England
had been governed, his subjects forced him to
sign the Magna Carta, or Great Charter, which
enumerates what later came to be thought of
as human rights.
102
Human Rights
Among rights of Magna Carta were the right of the
church to be free from governmental interference, the
rights of all free citizens to own and inherit property
and be free from excessive taxes. It established the
right of widows who owned property to choose not to
remarry, and established principles of due process
and equality before the law. It also contained
provisions forbidding bribery and official misconduct.
103
Rights:
A Base for Moral Change

Many of the great movements of
this century have centered
around the notion of rights.
– The Civil Rights Movement
– Equal rights for women
– Movements for the rights of
indigenous peoples
– Children’s rights
– Gay rights
104
Justifications for Rights




Self-evidence
Divine Foundation
Natural Law
Human Nature
105
Self-evidence

“We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men
are created equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among
these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.”
Declaration of Independence
July 4, 1776
106
Divine Foundation

“We have granted to God, and by
this our present Charter have
confirmed, for us and our Heirs for
ever, That the Church of England
shall be free, and shall have her
whole rights and liberties inviolable.
We have granted also, and given to
all the freemen of our realm, for us
and our Heirs for ever, these liberties
underwritten, to have and to hold to
them and their Heirs, of us and our
Heirs for ever.”
The Magna Carta, 1297
107
Universal Declaration of Human
Rights
Article 1.
 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity
and rights. They are endowed with reason and
conscience and should act towards one another in a
spirit of brotherhood.

http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html
108
Rights-related Questions






Freedom of Speech
Death Penalty
The Disappeared
Economic & Social Rights
Terrorism & Anti-Terrorism
Corruption
109
Natural Law

According to natural law ethical theory, the moral
standards that govern human behavior are, in
some sense, objectively derived from the nature
of human beings.
110
Natural Law
Human Nature

Arguments for natural rights that appeal to human
nature involve the following steps:
– Establish that some characteristic of human
nature, such as the ability to make free choices,
is essential to human life.
111
Natural Law
Human Nature
– Establish that certain empirical conditions,
such as the absence of physical constraints,
are necessary for the existence or the exercise
of that characteristic;
– Conclude that people have a right to those
empirical conditions.
112
Two Concepts of Rights



The distinction depends on the obligation that is
placed on those who must respect your rights.
Negative Rights
– Obliges others not to interfere with your exercise
of the right.
Positive Rights
– Obligates others to provide you with positive
assistance in the exercise of that right.
113
Negative Rights

Negative rights simply impose on others the duty not
to interfere with your rights.
– The right to life, construed as a negative right,
obliges others not to kill you.
– The right to free speech, construed as a negative
right, obliges others not to interfere with your free
speech
114
Positive Rights

Positive rights impose on others a specific obligation
to do something to assist you in the exercise of your
right
– The right to life, construed as a positive right,
obliges others to provide you with the basics
necessary to sustain life if you are unable to
provide these for yourself
– The right to free speech, construed as a positive
right, obligates others to provide you with the
necessary conditions for your free speech--e.g.,
air time, newspaper space, etc.
– Welfare rights are typically construed as positive
rights.
115
Positive Rights:
Critique

Who is obligated to provide positive assistance?
– People in general
– Each of us individually
– The state (government)
116
The Limitations of Rights Concept

Rights, Community, and Individualism

Rights and Close Relationships
117
The Limitations of Rights Concept
Contradicting rights: Athos and
Women


Greek public community is indignant at the decision
recently taken by the Dutch court and at the
resolution of European parliament.
In January, a Greek law that allows monks from the
Athos Monastery not to let women to the Holy Mount
was officially declared in court as contradicting
human rights.
118
The Limitations of Rights Concept
Contradicting rights: Athos and
Women
An official response to the declaration was immediate:
governmental spokesman told European human
rights activists that the right of the Athos monastery
republic not to let women to the Holy Mount was
confirmed in the treaty of Greece-s incorporation into
the European Union.
119
Concluding Evaluation

Rights do not tell the whole story of ethics, especially
in the area of personal relationships.

Rights are always defined for groups of people
(humanity, women, indigenous people, workers etc).
120
Personal Integrity vs Public Safety
121
Justice
122
Introduction


All of us have been the recipients of demands of
justice.
– My 6 year old daughter protesting, “Daddy, it’s not
fair for you to get a cookie at night and I don’t.”
All of us have also been in the position of demanding
justice.
– I told the builder of my house that, since he
replaced defective windows for a neighbor, he
should replace my defective windows.
123
Conceptions of Justice


Distributive Justice
– Benefits and burdens
Compensatory/Recompensatory Justice
– Criminal justice
124
Distributive Justice

The central question of distributive justice is the
question of how the benefits and burdens of our lives
are to be distributed.
– Justice involves giving each person his or her due.
– Equals are to be treated equally.
125
Goods Subject to Distribution

What is to be distributed?
– Income
– Wealth
– Opportunities
126
Subjects of Distribution

To whom are good to be distributed?
– Individual persons
– Groups of persons
– Classes
127
Basis for Distribution

On what basis should goods be distributed?
– Equality
– Individual needs or desires
– Free market transactions
– Ability to make best use of the goods
128
Strict Egalitarianism


Basic principle: every person should have the same
level of material goods and services
Criticisms
– Unduly restricts individual freedom
– May conflict with what people deserve
129
The Difference Principle


More wealth may be produced in a system where
those who are more productive earn greater incomes.
Strict egalitarianism may discourage maximal
production of wealth.
130
Welfare-Based Approaches

Seek to maximize well-being of society as a whole
131
Desert*-Based Approaches

Distributive systems are just insofar as they
distribute incomes according to the different levels
earned or deserved by the individuals in the
society for their productive labors, efforts or
contributions. (Feinberg)
*desert - förtjänst; förtjänt lön, vedergällning
according to one's deserts efter förtjänst
132
Desert*-Based Approaches



Distribution is based on:
– Actual contribution to the social product
– Effort one expend in work activity
– Compensation to the costs
Seeks to raise the overall standard of living by
rewarding effort and achievement
May be applied only to working adults
133
Try to run “Wealth Distribution”, a model that simulates
the distribution of wealth.
http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/WealthDistrib
ution
134
The Ethics of Character:
Virtues and Vices
135
Introduction
Concern for character has
flourished in the West
since the time of Plato,
whose early dialogues
explored such virtues as
courage and piety*.
Plato (by Michaelangelo)
* fromhet
136
Two Moral Questions



The Question of Action:
– How ought I to act?
The Question of Character
– What kind of person ought I to be?
Our concern here is with the question of character
137
An Analogy from the Criminal
Justice System
• As a country, we place our trust for just decisions in the
legal arena in two places:
– Laws, which provide the necessary rules
– People, who (as judge and jury) apply rules judiciously
• Similarly, ethics places its trust in:
– Theories, which provide rules for conduct
– Virtue, which provides the wisdom necessary for
applying rules in particular instances
138
Virtue





Strength of character
(habit)
Involving both feeling,
knowing and action
Seeks the mean
between excess and
deficiency relative to us
Dynamic balance
Secure desirable
behavior
Aristotle (by Michaelangelo)
139
The Seven Essential Virtues
Defining “Moral IQ”







Empathy
Conscience
Self-Control
Respect
Tolerance
Fairness
Kindness







Wisdom*
Courage*
Temperance*
Justice*
Integrity
Responsibility
Honesty
140
*Aristotles cardinal virtues
Virtues (1)
Sphere of
Existence
Deficiency
Attitude toward Servility
self
Self-deprecation
Attitude toward
offenses of
others
Attitude toward
good
deeds of
others
Ignoring them
Being a Doormat
Suspicion
Envy
Ignoring them
Mean
Excess
Arrogance
Proper Self-Love Conceit
Proper Pride
Egoism
Self-Respect
Narcissism
Vanity
Anger
Revenge
Forgiveness
Grudge
Understanding
Resentment
Gratitude
Admiration
Regret,
Attitude toward Indifference
Remorse
Remorselessness
our
Making Amends
own offenses
Downplaying
Self-Forgiveness
Attitude toward
Indifference
Loyalty
our friends
Over
indebtedness
Toxic Guilt
Scrupulosity
Shame
Obsequiousness
141
Virtues (2)
Sphere of
Existence
Deficiency
Attitude toward
our
own good deeds
Sense of
Belittling
Accomplishment
Disappointment
Humility
Selfrighteousness
Attitude toward
the
suffering of
others
Callousness
Compassion
Pity
“Bleeding
Heart”
Attitude toward
the
achievements of
others
Selfsatisfaction
Complacency
Competition
Admiration
Emulation
Envy
Cowardice
Courage
Foolhardiness
Anhedonia
Temperance
Moderation
Lust
Gluttony
Exploitation
Respect
Deferentiality
Attitude toward
death
and danger
Attitude toward
our
own desires
Attitude toward
other people
Mean
Excess
142
Two Concepts of Morality

In a simplified scheme, we can contrast two approaches
to the morality.
– Restrictive concept:
•
•
•
•
Child vs. adult
Comes from outside (usually parents).
“Don’t touch that stove burner!”
Rules and habit formation are central.
– Affirmative concept:
•
•
•
•
Adult vs. adult
Comes from within (self-directed).
“This is the kind of person I want to be”
Virtue-centered, often modeled on ideals.
143
Rightly-ordered Desires and the
Goals of Moral Education


Moral education may initially seek to control unruly
desires through rules, the formation of habits, etc.
Ultimately, moral education aims at forming and
cultivating virtuous conduct.
144
Virtue As the Golden Mean


Strength of character (virtue), Aristotle suggests,
involves finding the proper balance between two
extremes.
– Excess: having too much of something.
– Deficiency: having too little of something.
Not mediocrity, but harmony and balance.
145
Virtue and Habit


For Aristotle, virtue is something that is practiced and
thereby learned—it is habit (hexis).
This has clear implications for moral education, for
Aristotle obviously thinks that you can teach people
to be virtuous.
146
Egoism
147
Two Types of Egoism

Two types of egoism:
– Psychological egoism
• Asserts that as a matter of fact we do always
act selfishly
• Purely descriptive
– Ethical egoism
• Maintains that we should always act selfishly
148
What does it mean to be selfish?

If we are selfish, do we only do
things that are in our genuine
self-interest?
– What about the chain smoker? Is
this person acting out of genuine
self-interest?
– In fact, the smoker may be acting
selfishly (doing what he wants
without regard to others) but not
self-interestedly (doing what will
ultimately benefit him).
149
What does it mean to be selfish?

If we are selfish, do we only
do things we believe are in
our self-interest?
– What about those who believe
that sometimes they act
altruistically?
– Does anyone truly believe
Mother Theresa was completely
selfish?

Think of the actions of
parents. Don’t parents
sometimes act for the sake of
their children, even when it is
against their narrow selfinterest to do so?
Mother Theresa (1910-1997)
150
Re-conceptualizing Psychological
Egoism
In addition to having two independent axes, we must distinguish
between the intentions of actions and their consequences. Thus
we get two graphs:
Not
intended
to benefit
self
Intentions
Consequences
Strongly intended to help others
High beneficial To others
Strongly
intended
to benefit
self
Strongly intended to harm others
Highly
harmful
to self
Highly
beneficial
to self
Highly harmful to others
151
Ethical Egoism
152
Ethical Egoism

Selfishness is praised as a virtue
– Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness


May appeal to psychological egoism
as a foundation
Often very compelling for high school
students
Ayn Rand (1905-1982).
(born Alice Rosenbaum)
153
Versions of Ethical Egoism



Personal Ethical Egoism
– “I am going to act only in my own interest, and
everyone else can do whatever they want.”
Individual Ethical Egoism
– “Everyone should act in my own interest.”
Universal Ethical Egoism
– “Each individual should act in his or her own self
interest.”
154
Altruism


Unselfish concern for the welfare of others;
selflessness, charity, generosity.
Zoology. Instinctive cooperative behavior that is
detrimental (harmful) to the individual but contributes
to the survival of the species.
155
Universalizing Ethical Egoism


Can the ethical egoist consistently will that everyone
else follow the tenets of ethical egoism?
– It seems to be in one’s self-interest to be selfish
oneself and yet get everyone else to act
altruistically (especially if they act for your benefit).
This leads to individual ethical egoism.
Some philosophers such as Jesse Kalin have argued
that in sports we consistently universalize ethical
egoism: we intend to win, but we want our opponents
to try as hard as they can!
156
Egoism, Altruism, and
the Ideal World
Aristotle



Ideally, we seek a society in
which self-interest and regard for
others converge—the green
zone.
Egoism at the expense of others
and altruism at the expense of
self-interest both create worlds in
which goodness and self-regard
are mutually exclusive—the
yellow zone.
No one want the red zone, which
is against both self-interest and
regard for others.
Tocqueville’s
“Self-interest rightly understood”
High
Altruism
Kant
Self-sacrificing
altruism
Low
Egoism
Not beneficial
either to self
or others
Drug addiction
Alcoholism, etc.
Self-interest
and regard
for others
converge
High
Egoism
Self-interest
at the expense
of others
Low
Altruism
Hobbes’s
State of Nature,
Nietzsche?
157
Sinking Titanic: Egoism vs. Altruism
(Even risks in technical systems)
158
Moral Reasoning and
Gender
The Kohlberg-Gilligan Debate and
Beyond
159
Le Deuxième Sexe - The Second Sex
Simone de Beauvoir 1949

Woman as the Other
“For a long time I have hesitated to
write a book on woman. The
subject is irritating, especially to
women; and it is not new. Enough
ink has been spilled in quarrelling
…”
Simone de Beauvoir
http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/beav.htm
160
Lawrence Kohlberg


American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
(Harvard) studied under Swiss psychologist
and philosopher Jean Piaget (1965), who had
developmental approach to learning. Kohlberg
extended the approach to stages of moral
reasoning.
Using surveys, Kohlberg presented his
subjects with moral dilemmas and asked them
to evaluate the moral conflict. He was able to
prove that youth at various ages, as youth
proceed to adulthood, they are able to
progress up the moral development stages
presented,
Lawrence Kohlberg
(1927 - 1987)
161
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
LEVEL
STAGE
1
Obedience and Punishment
2
Individualism, Instrumentalism, and
Exchange
3
"Good boy/girl"
4
Law and Order
5
Social Contract
6
Principled Conscience
Pre-conventional
Conventional
Post-conventional
SOCIAL ORIENTATION
162
Gender and Kohlberg’s scale

Women are more likely to base their explanations for
moral dilemmas on concepts such as caring and
personal relationships. These concepts are likely to
be scored at the stage three level. Men, on the other
hand, are more likely to base their decisions for moral
dilemmas on social contract or justice and equity.
Those concepts are likely to be scored at stage five
or six.
163
Carol Gilligan


University Professor of
Gender Studies,
Harvard University (1997present)
In a Different Voice:
Psychological Theory and
Women's Development,
book 1982.
Carol Gilligan,
1936 - present
164
How do we understand Gilligan’s
claims?
Plato: Meno
SOCRATES: (…) By the gods, Meno, be generous, and
tell me what you say that virtue is; (…)
MENO: (…) Let us take first the virtue of a man--he
should know how to administer the state, and in the
administration of it to benefit his friends and harm his
enemies; and he must also be careful not to suffer
harm himself. A woman's virtue, if you wish to know
about that, may also be easily described: her duty is
to order her house, and keep what is indoors, and
obey her husband. Every age, every condition of life,
young or old, male or female, bond or free, has a
different virtue (…)
165
How do we understand Gilligan’s
claims?


With the advent of industrial revolution, and welfare
state where all children are given education, and
physical strength has no dominant role, women have
entered the public sphere traditionally dominated by
males.
Female professionals have encountered a culture
that was historically male territory. It caused cultural
shock.
166
How do we interpret Gilligan’s
claims?
Four possible positions about female vs. male moral
voices:
 Separate but equal
 Superiority thesis
 Integrationist thesis
 Diversity thesis
167
The Diversity Thesis
– Suggests that there are different moral voices
– Sees this as a source of richness and growth in the
moral life
– External diversity
• Different individuals have different, sex-based moral
voices
• Males with female voices and females with male voices
are admitted
– Internal diversity
• Each of us have both masculine and feminine moral
voices within us
• Minimizes gender stereotyping
168
Conclusion
“The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury)


Kohlberg – Gilligan controversy is but a beginning of
a long process of re-thinking position of women in a
post-modern society.
The end of industrialist era and the emergency of
new information technology results in conditions that
even more favor female professionals.
169
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
170
The Earth
"We have not inherited the Earth from our fathers.
We are borrowing it from our children."
Native American saying
171
Environmental Ethics and Philosophy
Are There Universal Ethical Principles?




Universalists: Plato, Kant believe that fundamental
principles of ethics are universal, unchanging and
eternal
Relativists: Sophists- everything contextual. Believe
that moral principles are always relative to a
particular person
Nihilists: Schopenhauer- arbitrary survival. Claim
that the world makes no sense at all and that
everything is completely arbitrary
Utilitarians: Bentham - greatest good for greatest
number of people
172
Values, Rights, and Obligations




Moral agents. Some philosophers believe that only
humans are moral agents
Moral subjects. Children are considered moral
subjects not moral agents
Inherent, instrumental value
Non-living things, do they have value?
173
Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives



Individual beliefs towards ecology depend on ethical
perspectives
Most people have set of core values or beliefs
Environmental concerns are a source for
comparisons among different values and perceptions
174
Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives
Domination


Interpretation of some religious values has lead in
past to anthropocentric (human-centered) ecological
principles which believe that humans are the focus of
creation
Current movement in religious organizations to fight
for ecological concerns
175
Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives
Stewardship

Responsibility to manage our ecosystem. To work
together with human and non-human forces to
sustain life
176
Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives
Biocentrism (life-centered), Animal Rights, and
Ecocentrism (ecologically-centered)



Biocentrism: biodiversity is the highest ethical value
in nature
Animal rights supporters focus on the individual
Ecocentrism: whole is more important than individual
animal
Ecofeminism


Warren, Shiva, Merchant, Ruether, and King
A network of personal relationships
177
Worldviews and ethical perspectives
A comparison
Philosophy
Intrinsic Value
Instrumental Value
Role of humans
Anthropocentric
Humans
Nature
Masters
Stewardship
Humans & Nature
Tools
Caretakers
Biocentric
Species
Abiotic nature
One of many
Animal rights
Individuals
Processes
Equals
Ecocentric
Processes
Individuals
Destroyers
Ecofeminist
Relationships
Roles
Caregivers
178
Environmental Justice


Combination of civil rights and environmental
protection that demands a safe, healthy life-giving
environment for everyone
Most people of low socio-economic position are
exposed to high pollution levels
179
Environmental Racism


Unequal distribution of hazardous waste based on
race
Black children 2-3 times more likely to have lead
poisoning
Dumping Across Borders



Toxic colonialism: targeting third/fourth world
countries for waste disposal
Polluting industries move to poor countries
Environmental Justice Act (1992)
180
181
Science as a Way of Knowing
A Faustian Bargain?


Technology can create power to save and destroy life
Dr. Faustus sold his soul to the devil in exchange for
power and wealth (youth)
182
Management Theory and the
Environment

Anthropocentric Theories
– Ethics
– Economic
– Corporate Social
Responsibility
• Stakeholder
• Normative
• Social Contract

Green Management Theories
–
–
–
–
Ecocentricism
Adjusted Stakeholder
Sustainablity
Resource Based Theory
183
Global Environmental Ethics
184
Environmental Ethics and Business


Western Society - Objectifies Nature
– Locke - “Something in a state of nature has no
economic value and is of no utility to the human
race”
Ethics - a concern with actions and practices directed
to improving the welfare of people.
185
Economic Fundamentalism and
Ethics
The corporate social responsibility of a business is to
increase profit. - M. Friedman



Those things that cannot be traded on the market
have no value.
Where does the environment fit in these definitions
for environmental ethics?
Will people and corporations do environmentally
responsible things on their own? What happens if
they do?
186
Corporate Social Responsibility




By doing socially responsible things, businesses
better human life.
Hopefully ..good ethics is good business.
Is this true?
Is enlightened self interest a good way?
187
Incorporating Environment into
Management


Environmental Ethics is a starting point
– Expanding ethics to include nature.
– What is the difficulty in doing this?
– What does the Biocentric ethic say (Goodpaster?)
Biocentrism
– Natural objects have intrinsic value and morally
considerable in their own right.
– Deep Ecology nature has an ethical status at least
equal to humans.
188
Green Management

Ecocentrism views industrial relationships in a cycle,
and a whole set of philosophies.
How radical is this?

Sustaincentrism - going beyond sustainability of
development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their needs.
– Human and economic relationships inextricably
linked with natural systems.
189
Resource Extraction and Use



Burning of fossil fuels
Destruction of tropical
rainforests and other
biologically rich
landscapes
Production of toxic
wastes
190
Environmental Science
Environment - the
circumstances and
conditions that surround
an organism or a group of
organisms
Environmental science the systematic study of
our environment and our
place in it
191
What ought I to do?
Intention
Action
Consequence
Duty
Deontological Ethics
192
What ought I to do?
Intention
Action
Consequence
Consequentialist Ethics
193
http://www.envirolink.org/
- Agriculture
- Air Quality
- Climate Change
- Ecosystems
- Energy
- Environmental Disasters
- Environmental Economics
- Environmental Education
- Environmental Ethics
- Environmental Legislation and Policy
- Ground Pollution
- Habitat Conservation
- Human Health
- Natural History
- Oceans
- Outdoor Recreation
- Population
- Sustainable Business
- Sustainable Development
- Sustainable Living
- Transportation
- Urban Issues
- Vegetarianism
- Waste Management
- Water Quality
- Wildlife
194
Ethics Contexts
Industry
(Other firms)
Clients
Consumers
Profession
(Societies)
Engineering firm
Family
(Private Sphere)
Engineer
Colleagues
Managers
Global environment
Society/Nature
195
Research Ethics Committee
University of Mälardalen
Ethics committee decision making
Research ethical issues of MDH, advisory committee:
http://www.mdh.se/university/organization/boards/Ethics
Decision-making (policy-making) body in Uppsala
http://www.epn.se/
196
What is Professional Ethics?
There are many ways to introduce applied/professional
ethics with different focus:




Pragmatic
Embedded
Theoretical
Emerging Issues
197
Approach 1
Pragmatic
Ethical issues are introduced via a consideration of their
practical consequences. Consequences are defined
in relation to:
•
The framework of rules and procedures defined by
regulatory bodies charged with the task of raising or
maintaining professional standards.
•
Research Ethics Committees and the factors that
influence their deliberations
198
Approach 2
Embedded
Ethical concerns are presented holistically, as an
integral part of some broader area of concern such
as:
•
Fitness for Practice.
•
Professionalism.
The embedded approach places an emphasis on the
sense of professional identity.
199
Approach 3
Theoretical
This approach focuses on the understanding of ethics
theory.
The ethics of life-like situations are presented in terms
of the application of different ethical theories.
200
Emerging Professional Issues
Professional ethics introduces new issues and concerns
by seeking to guide and shape graduate behaviour
as a way of meeting public expectations with regard
to professional conduct and accountability.
201
Professional Ethics Primary Objectives
1.
To help professionals make choices that they can live
with, and by reducing the emotional and psychological
stress caused by moral indecision and confusion.
2.
To ensure that the professional acts in a way that
serves the best interests of society in general and their
service-users in particular.
3.
To ensure that the professionals acts in a way that
serves the best interests of their chosen profession.
202
CRITICISM OF THE
SOURCES
Academic Honesty
203
What is cheating?





Plagiarizing - copying, paraphrasing and selfplagiarizing
Unauthorized co-operation
Joyriding or taking advantage
Fabrication
Un-authorized aids
204
Consequences




All suspected cases will be reported to the
disciplinary committee
The teacher is not allowed to haggle or punish!
Warning or suspension from classes
IDE practice is a zero tolerance against academic
dishonesty
205
Rules






”Individually” means by one single person
Be prepared to describe carefully how you solved the
assignment
The names on the cover are the names of those who
made the assignment
Use references to everything that is not your own
present work!
When in doubt – ask teacher
Read http://www.mdh.se/ide/utbildning/cheating
206
Concluding
Comments
207
Conclusion
“The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury)



Complexity of the real world problems – number of
processes go on concurrently
Ambiguity of theoretical representations and
interpretations
No absolute truth, but the commitment to the
commonly accepted ”good enough” ”reasonably
good” solutions
208
World seen in different light
What if we could see in any wavelength of the
electromagnetic spectrum, from gamma-rays to
radio waves? How would the world appear to us?
209
Images of the sun
RADIO
INFRARED
ULTRAVIOLET
VISIBLE
X-RAY
210
Images of the moon
RADIO
INFRARED
ULTRAVIOLET
VISIBLE
X-RAY
211
Images of galaxy M81
RADIO
INFRARED
ULTRAVIOLET
VISIBLE
X-RAY
http://hea-www.harvard.edu/CHAMP/EDUCATION/PUBLIC/multiwavelengthphotos_pics.html
212
World as seen in the light of different
models

An example: one country has started war on the
other. What are the possible “optics” we can use to
analyze the problem from the ethical point of view?

Virtue Ethics
– The leader of one country was very bad character. Leader of
the other was very good. Which one is which depends
usually on the side in the war.
213
World as seen in the light of different
models

Utilitarian Ethics
– The country have to be helped, pacified, civilized.
– The total benefit from the point of view of the one
who sets the rules and counts benefits is obvious.

Rights
– As a rule in a war human rights are violated. If you
focus on that aspect of the problem you may get
the different picture.
214
World as seen in the light of different
models

Duty
– In a war, defending your country/fighting for your
country is seen as a highest duty.

Egoism
– In egoist perspective war can be used to gain
huge benefits.

Feminist ethics
– Feminist claim wars are male business.
215
World as seen in the light of different
models

Justice
– The distribution of wealth/natural resources can be
a central issue in a war and so also in ethical
analysis of it.

Divine Command
– Very often a war can be seen as a clash between
different religions. Each side fights with the divine
support. (So it was even in ancient Greece)
216
References


Basic material:
– http://ethics.acusd.edu/presentations/Hinman/theor
y/relativism/
– http://ethics.acusd.edu/socialethics/
– Moral Philosophy Through The Ages, James
Fieser, Mayfield Publishing Company, 2001
Additional resources:
– http://www.prs.heacademy.ac.uk/projects/ethics/
– http://ethics.acusd.edu/relativism.html
217