Transcript Chapter 4
© 2013 Cengage Learning Outline Culture and Temperament What is Temperament? The Goodness of Fit between Temperament and Culture Cross-Cultural Studies on Temperament Temperament and Learning Culture Dimensions of Temperament: A Focus on Behavioral Inhibition Sources behind Temperament Differences Outline (cont’d.) Culture and Attachment Bowlby's Theory of Attachment Bowlby and Ainsworth's Classification System of Attachment Cross-Cultural Studies on Attachment Is Secure Attachment a Universal Ideal? Temperament and Attachment: A Summary Outline (cont’d.) Cognitive Development Piaget's Theory Piaget's Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective Piaget's Theory: Summary and Discussion Other Theories of Cognitive Development Outline (cont’d.) Moral Reasoning What is Moral? Kohlberg's Theory of Morality Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning Three Ethics Approach to Moral Reasoning Other Developmental Processes Conclusion CULTURE AND TEMPERAMENT Culture and Temperament Process of socialization starts from very first day of life Characteristics we are born with determine how our caregivers react and interact with us, initiating lifelong process of socialization Children of different cultures are born with different biological predispositions to learn certain cultural practices What is Temperament? Temperament: biologically based style of interacting with world that exists from birth Easy temperament: adaptable, mild Difficult temperament: intense, irregular Slow-to-warm-up: needs time to make transitions The Goodness of Fit between Temperament and Culture How well does a child’s temperament match the expectations and values of the parent? Mismatch: more negative child outcomes are expected Good match: better child outcomes are expected Dispositions and behaviors must be considered in relation to specific culture Same dispositions and behaviors may have different meanings in different cultures Cross-Cultural Studies on Temperament If different temperaments at birth, children of different cultures will respond to environment differently Children of different cultures will also evoke different responses from caregivers and environment Consequence: fundamental differences in learning, social experiences, worldview, and culture of children as they grow Temperament and Learning Culture Differences in infant temperament help parents reinforce cultural practices Temperament serves as baseline biological predisposition Cultural differences evident early in life indicate personalities and behaviors valued in adults Child's temperament and environmental response results in differences in learning, social experiences, behaviors, personalities, and worldviews Dimensions of Temperament: A Focus on Behavioral Inhibition Activity level Smiling and laughter Fear Distress to limitations Soothability Duration of orienting Sources Behind Temperament Differences Developmental contextualism perspective: genetics, reproductive histories, and environmental and cultural pressures over generations Cultural experiences of mother during pregnancy Complex interplay between multiple factors such as temperamental styles valued in each culture, specific environmental demands, and physiological aspects of mother CULTURE AND ATTACHMENT Culture and Attachment Attachment: special bond that develops between infant and caregiver Quality of attachment has lifelong effects on relationships with loved ones Attachment provides child with emotional security Once attached, babies are distressed by separation from caregiver Bowlby's Theory of Attachment Infants must have a preprogrammed, biological basis for becoming attached to their caregivers Smiling and cooing elicits physical attachment behaviors on part of caregiver Attachment relationship between caregiver and child is survival strategy Bowlby and Ainsworth's Classification System of Attachment Tripartite classification system of attachment relationships Secure: infant distressed when mother leaves but easily comforted when she returns Ambivalent: infant is distressed when mother leaves but sends mixed signals upon return Avoidant: not distressed when mother leaves and upon return, avoids reuniting with mother Cross-Cultural Studies on Attachment Strange Situation study: infants separated from mothers for a brief period of time Meaning of separation may differ across cultures Researchers have questioned appropriateness of different categories of attachment Maternal sensitivity has not been consistently linked to secure attachment Is Secure Attachment a Universal Ideal? Cultures may differ in notion of "ideal" attachment Attachment relationships in childhood may have long-term consequences into adolescence and adulthood Early attachment relationships affect quality of peer relationships, ability to develop intimate adult relationships, and how one parents Attachment between infants and caregivers is universal phenomenon TEMPERAMENT AND ATTACHMENT: A SUMMARY Temperament and Attachment: A Summary Optimal style of attachment in one culture may not necessarily be optimal across all cultures Examining attachment "network" instead of focusing solely on dyads is of crucial importance Close interaction between infant’s temperament, attachment with caregiver, and broader environment that contributes to development COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget's Theory Sensorimotor stage: (birth to 2 years) Preoperational stage: (2 to 6 or 7 years) Conservation, centration, irreversibility, egocentrism, and animism Concrete operations stage: (6 or 7 years to 11) Children understand by perceiving and doing Thinking skills to work with actual objects and events Formal operations stage: (11 years through adulthood) Think logically about abstract concepts Piaget's Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective Piaget's stages occur in same fixed order in other cultures Variations in ages at which children in different societies reach third and fourth Piagetian stages Considerable variation in order in which children acquire specific skills within Piaget's stages Different societies value and reward different skills and behaviors Piaget's Theory: Summary and Discussion In some cultures, very few people complete fourth-stage Piagetian tasks Are Piagetian tasks culturally appropriate? Do Piagetian tasks depend on previous knowledge and cultural values? Within-culture differences hinder inferences about differences in cognitive development between cultures Universality of fourth stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development is questionable Other Theories of Cognitive Development Great divide theory: separates thoughts of Westerners from people in primitive societies Stage theories judge people from other cultures based on how closely they resemble westerners People from many cultures prefer own groups and rate them more positively than outsiders Piaget theory emphasized several concepts important for cognitive development today “Everyday cognition”: cognition in the context of daily activities within cultural community MORAL REASONING Moral Reasoning Moral principles and ethics provide guidelines for people's behaviors with regard to what is appropriate and what is not Morality is heavily influenced by underlying, subjective, and implicit culture Morality serves as basis of laws, and thus culture also affects laws of society What is Moral? Types of rules children as young as three can differentiate: Moral: applies to everyone; cannot be changed; based on values Conventional: applies to certain groups; changeable; based on agreed-upon norms Personal: applies to individuals; changeable; based on preferences of specific person Kohlberg's Theory of Morality Preconventional morality: compliance with rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards Conventional morality: conformity to rules defined by others' approval or society's rules Postconventional morality: moral reasoning on basis of individual principles and conscience Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning Some aspects of Kohlberg's theory of morality are universal Many studies on moral reasoning raise questions about universal generalizability of Kohlberg's highest stage (postconventional) Cross-cultural studies have shown that people from different cultures do reason differently about moral dilemmas Three Ethics Approach to Moral Reasoning Ethic of autonomy: emphasizes individual rights and justice Ethic of community: emphasizes interpersonal relationships and community Ethic of divinity: centrality of religious beliefs and spirituality in moral reasoning OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES Other Developmental Processes Cross-cultural research offers important insights into how differences observed in adults have come to be Renewed interest in cross-cultural developmental research due to increased interest in culture in all areas of psychology Cross-cultural studies highlight similarities and differences in development across cultures CONCLUSION Conclusion Two key issues concerning human development: Whether developmental pathways are universal or culture specific How development occurs All people are born into specific cultures with unique set of characteristics and predispositions Each culture exerts influence, and in combination with each unique cultural member, produces specific tendencies, trends, and differences in members