Transcript document

Moral development
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Moral reasoning—the thinking process involved in
judgments about questions of right and wrong.
 Distributive justice—beliefs about how to divide materials
or privileges among members of a group; follows a
sequence of development from equality to merit to
benevolence.
 Moral realism—stage of development wherein children
see rules as absolute
 Morality of cooperation—stage of development wherein
children realize that people make rules and people can
change them.
 Moral dilemmas—situations in which no choice is clearly
and indisputably right.
Piaget and Moral Development
Stage one:
External Morality
(moral realism):
Children view rules as
fixed and permanent and
externally enforced by
authority figures.
Rules & authority outside of the
child, controlling the child.
Internalization
The personal
source of control
for children’s
thoughts and
actions
Stage two:
Autonomous morality
Children develop rational
ideas of fairness and see
justice as a reciprocal
process of treating
others as they would
want to be treated.
Rules & authority come from
within—self control.
Autonomous means independent; in this case, it means that a person
has a sense of right and wrong internally and no longer needs an outside
source to control him/her.
Kohlberg
Kohlberg’s work is founded on moral dilemmas:
ambiguous situations that require a person to make a moral
decision and justify that decision in terms of right and
wrong.
At issue is NOT what people choose in a given situation but HOW they JUSTIFY
their choice. There are six stages of moral reasoning.
Kohlberg
Level 1:
Preconventional
Focus on self-egocentrism
Stage 1:
PunishmentObedience
People make
moral decisions
based on their
chances of
getting caught
and being
punished.
Childhood
Stage 2:
Market
Exchange:
people feel
that an act is
morally
justified if it
results in an
act of
reciprocity on
someone
else’s part.
Level 2:
Conventional
Focus on others
Stage 3:
Interpersonal
Harmony:
people make
decisions
based on
conventions,
loyalty, and
living up to the
expectations
of others.
Adolescence
Stage 4:
Law and
Order:
people follow
laws and rules
for their own
sake.
Level 3:
Postconventional
Focus on principles
Stage 5:
Social
Contract:
people make
moral
decisions
based on
socially
agreed-upon
rules.
Stage 6:
Universal
Principles:
the individual’s
moral
reasoning is
based on
abstract and
general
principles that
are
independent of
society’s laws
and rules.
An example of a moral dilemma
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The Heinz Dilemma
A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the druggist's
dilemma: Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe.
A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one
drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a
druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was
expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug
cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for
a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to
everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together
about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife
was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the
druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money
from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the
drug-for his wife. (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 19)
Should Heinz break into the laboratory to steal the drug for his
wife? Why or why not? Answer this question before you
move to the next slide. What would you do? Why would you
do it?
From Wikipedia
From Wikipedia
Some responses to Heinz dilemma
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Stage one (obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine,
because he will consequently be put in prison.
Stage two (self-interest): Heinz should steal the medicine, because
he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to
serve a prison sentence.
Stage three (conformity): Heinz should steal the medicine, because
his wife expects it.
Stage four (law-and-order): Heinz should not steal the medicine,
because the law prohibits stealing.
Stage five (human rights): Heinz should steal the medicine, because
everyone has a right to live, regardless of the law. Or: Heinz should
not steal the medicine, because the scientist has a right to fair
compensation.
Stage six (universal human ethics): Heinz should steal the medicine,
because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the
property rights of another person. Or: Heinz should not steal the
medicine, because that violates the golden rule of honesty and
respect.
Kohlberg in the Classroom
 Student
behavior and administrative rule
making can reflect the various stages of
Kohlberg. As you read the next slides,
think about what level of moral
development you would like to encourage
in your students and how your classroom
management practices might encourage
that level.
The following slides on Kohlberg in the classroom are based on:
http://facultyweb.cortland.edu/~ANDERSMD/KOHL/kolexm1a.HTML
Level 1, Stage 1
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Level 1: Preconventional
Punishment-Obedience orientation
Elementary school examples
A fourth grade girl refrains from running in the hallway to avoid the
consequences involved in breaking that school's rule.
"Discussion rules" are placed on the blackboard in a combined 1st
and 2nd grade classroom, and whenever a student breaks one of
those rules, he or she cannot participate in the classroom discussion
High school examples
When a middle school student swears in the classroom, he or she
has to complete a list of consequences developed by the teacher
earlier in the year
One middle school teacher devised the most effective strategy for
getting students to class on time. He has latecomers do pushups--50
of them--in front of the class
A high school English student is sent down to the office for forgetting
her homework the third day in a row.
Level 1, Stage 2
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Level 1: Preconventional
Personal Reward Orientation (Market Exchange)
Elementary school examples
Two elementary school students were found arguing:
Student 1: "She called me a jerk!"
Student 2: "Well, he pulled my hair!"
A student offers to be last in line when going to the cafeteria so she can be first in
line when going out for recess.
High school examples
A middle school student refrains from arguing with her classmate so she is able to
participate in group work later in the period.
A group of high school students involved in a cooperative learning activity get
upset because one of their group members is repeatedly absent and did not do
any work.
A high school teacher has the rule: "Homework in late will receive five points off for
each day it is received after the due date". One student hands in homework four
days late with a story about how her boyfriend left her. The teacher takes 20 points
off her paper. A second student misses several days of school due to an illness,
and hands in the same homework four days late. The teacher gives him full credit.
The class protests, saying it is unfair for him to change the rules in the middle of
the school year
Level 2 Stage 3
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Level 2: Conventional
Good Boy/ Nice Girl Orientation (Interpersonal Harmony)
Elementary school examples
A student stays after school to clean all the chalkboards for the
teacher.
A fifth grade teacher asks her students to: "Please help me clean up
the mess from our science experiment so we can all get to recess
on time!"
High school examples
A middle school student agrees to throw out the gum she is chewing
to please the teacher.
In an inner city high school student's journal, she wrote "I am going
to work harder in school so I won't let you down because if you think
I can make it then I can make it" (Johnson, 1992).
Level 2, Stage 4
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Level 2: Conventional
Law and Order Orientation
Elementary school examples
"It is compulsory for all school-age students to attend school." This statement exemplifies a
right available to students by the United States Constitution (Gathercoal, 1993).
"Respect the property of others". This sign, when hung in a middle school, reinforced the
student's right to private property.
"Keep your hands and feet to yourself." School officials have both the legal authority and the
professional responsibility to deny student rights that seriously disrupt student learning activities
(Gathercoal, 1993).
High school examples
"Move carefully in the halls". This rule reinforces the fundamental purpose of government to
protect the health and welfare of it's citizens (Gathercoal, 1993).
"Gang activity must be off school premises." School officials have both the legal authority and
the professional responsibility to deny student rights that seriously disrupt student learning
activities (Gathercoal, 1993).
"Wear appropriate shoes on the gym floor". Public property must be protected in the schools
(Gathercoal, 1993)
Readers interested in learning more about Forest Gathercoal's Judicious Discipline, a model
of discipline based solely on the United States Constitution are referred to the following
readings:
Gathercoal, Forrest. (1993). Judicious Discipline, 3rd ed. San Francisco, CA: Caddo Gap
Press.
McEwan, Barbara. (1990). Judicious Discipline. Democracy and Education, 4(3): 37-40.
Level 3, Stage 5
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Level 3: Postconventional
Social Contract Orientation
Elementary school examples
A combined first and second grade class makes its own rules during the first
month of the year according to a class meeting where students discuss what
is proper and improper behavior in the classroom and why a particular
behavior is inappropriate (ie., who is affected by your actions)
A second-grade teacher helped her students understand all aspects of a
moral dilemma during a science project in which the class was incubating
chicken eggs. The assignment was to open an egg each week to look at the
developing chicken at various stages. Later that day, one of her students
confided in her that he thought it cruel to open an egg and kill the chick
inside. She listened without comment and decided to hold a class meeting
discussing the topic. The class discussed many aspects of the assignment,
including whether it really was cruel to kill a chick each week and
alternatives to the assignment. After discussing all the aspects, students
were encouraged to vote as to how to continue with the assignment
(Lickona, 1993).
Did you think that elementary students could reason at high levels of moral development?
Apparently they can. What would happen if all teachers encouraged their students to
reason at this level?
Level 3, Stage 5 continued
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High school examples
A high school teacher uses the following handout on the first day of class
(Lickona, 1991): "Please remember that this is your room and your class.
The behavior and participation of each person will shape the type of learning
that will occur. Since one person's behavior affects everyone else, I request
that everyone in the class be responsible for classroom management. To
ensure that our rights are protected and upheld, the following laws have
been established for this classroom..."
A high school teacher was having many problems with aggression in her
classroom. One day she decided she could not take the constant fighting
anymore and had the students participate in a class discussion about why
fighting was wrong. The class developed a long list of reasons why fighting
is wrong. She then encouraged them to develop a list of alternatives to
fighting or consequences of fighting during class time. The students
developed a long list, and only the most agreed upon consequences were
used. For example, "a person caught fighting will have to lick the floor" was
deemed inappropriate by the class for hygiene reasons, while "a person who
feels the need to fight will quietly step out of the room to cool down for a few
minutes" was accepted by teacher and students (Faber and Mazlish,1987).
Level 3, Stage 6
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Level 3: Postconventional
Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Elementary school examples
An elementary school class has little discipline problems with one simple classroom
rule: "Respect everyone in this room“ (Lickona, 1995).
A combined first and second grade class makes its own rules during the first month
of the year according to a class meeting in which all students are asked to reflect on
what is right and wrong and why things are right and wrong.
A second grade teacher was facilitating an activity to make a model of the
classroom as they saw it using wood scraps. A couple of her students were found
discussing their ideas (Lickona, 1991):
David: That is the dumbest chalkboard, Martha. You put it in a stupid place.
Teacher (to David): You think Martha should put the block in a different place.
Would you like to suggest to her where she might put it?
David: Yeah, right there. The chalkboard is BEHIND the table.
Teacher (to Martha): If you accept David's suggestion, you may move your block.
But if you like it where you put it, you may leave it right there.
Teacher (to David): when you don't use the words "stupid" and "dumbest," people
like to listen to you. You had an interesting point to make about the chalkboard.
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Level
3,
Stage
6
continued
High school examples
High school teacher: "I have only one rule in this classroom and that rule is not
negotiable: Respect yourself and everyone else in this room. If you can't respect
yourself, you can't respect other people. And if you don't have any self-respect, you
have a problem. We're going to fix that problem because every person has the right
to his or her personal dignity."
High school student: "That's bullshit!"
Teacher: It tells you everything...(for example)...Do you think it's respectful for you
to get up and walk around the room while I am talking?"
Student: "No"
Teacher: "Well, then, do you think it's respectful to say 'shit' in school?"
Student: "No"
Teacher: "then you tell me an example of something you could do in class and get
in trouble for that does not break my single rule"
He offered several suggestions but his classmates loudly disqualified each
example (Johnson, 1992).
This same teacher later added another rule to her list: "I will not tolerate any racial,
ethnic, or sexual slurs in this classroom. It is not fair to erase someone's face. In this
room, everyone is entitled to equal dignity as a human being. (Johnson, 1992)"
At a high school for girls in Chicago, math classes studied demographic facts
related to hunger , and religion classes discussed the question of "What is our ethical
and religious responsibility for the starving people of the world? (Lickona, 1991)
For further reading on the fostering of moral development in children, the reader
is directed to the work of Thomas Lickona.
Research on Kohlberg’s theory
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Every person’s moral reasoning passes through the
same stages in the same order
People pass through the stages at different rates
Development is gradual and continuous, rather than
sudden and discrete
Once a stage is attained, a person tends to reason at
that stage rather than regressing to a lower stage
Intervention usually advances a person only to the next
higher stage of moral reasoning
Social conventions vs. morality: social conventions are
the rules and expectations of a group or society—such
as what constitutes rudeness. Kohlberg’s work doesn’t
differentiate between social conventions and true
morality.
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory
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It is culturally specific to Western thinking. For example,
some cultures emphasize community over the individual,
which is lower on the Kohlberg scale.
Kohlberg’s work doesn’t differentiate between social
conventions (the rules and expectations of a particular
group or society) and true moral issues
Kohlberg’s work focuses on reasoning, not behavior.
Sometimes there is a difference.
Carol Gilligan criticized the theory for being based on
male moral development, suggesting that women tend to
be more oriented toward communal well-being and
therefore score lower on Kohlberg’s scale.
Moral judgments, social
conventions, and personal choices
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Some rules are social conventions: agreedupon rules and ways of doing things in a
particular situation.
 Americans eat with their fork in their right hand,
generally, and then switch the fork to the left
hand and knife in right hand when they need to
cut their food. Brits eat with the fork in the left
hand and knife in right hand and they cut their
food as they go. There’s no moral right or wrong
here, just how people tend to do things
differently in different places.
Morality in the classroom
 Your
responses to a problem should relate
to the domain of the problem: social or
moral.
 Moral issues: emphasize harm,
encourage perspective-taking
 Social conventions: restate the rules, give
a command.
Diversity in reasoning
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What is moral and what is a social convention
may be different for different people.
 Being a vegetarian may be a social convention
for some but may be a moral issue for others
(e.g., religious reasons or involvement in animal
rights).
 This may be the case for your students, as well.
Wearing a head covering seems like a
convention to those who don’t but it is a moral
issue for those who do.
Moral behavior
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The relationship between moral reasoning and
moral behavior is not strong.
 In other words, it’s easy to “talk the talk” but
much more difficult to “walk the walk.”
 Three influences on moral behavior: modeling,
internalization (process whereby children adopt
external standards as their own), and selfconcept.
 Children need to be exposed to people who
model moral behavior. They will be more likely to
internalize moral standards if they are given
reasons they understand for them. Eventually,
one’s morality becomes part of one’s identity.
Cheating
 Cheating
is often situational (lots of
pressure and little chance of being caught
are the characteristics of situations that
lead to cheating).
 Some individuals are more likely to cheat:
males, low achievers, those who are
focused on grades rather than learning
Diversity and Convergences in
Personal/social Development
 Different
people mature physically at
different times.
 Teacher caring is interpreted differently by
different people. At-risk students tend to
prefer personal caring while highachieving middle class students prefer
help with academic tasks.
 Self-concept is different across different
groups of people.
Convergences
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Children of divorce need teachers who are
authoritative—warm and clear about
requirements and limits.
Self-concepts are increasingly differentiated over
time, depending on subject.
A major challenge for all students is developing
a sense of identity.
Peer rejection is harmful for everyone.
High pressure situations can lead to cheating.
Vocabulary
Punishmentobedience
stage
Social
conventions
Moral
realism
External
morality
Internalization
Moral
reasoning
Interpersonal
harmony
stage
Morality of
cooperation
Universal
principles
stage
Law and
order stage
Market
exchange
stage
Moral
dilemma
Social
contract
stage