Transcript Social Development - University of Alberta

Social Development
Social development
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The changing nature of our relationships with
others over a life
What characterizes our relationships during
different phases?
Theories of social development
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Biological
Cultural
Cognitive
Freud (1856-1939)
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Psychodynamic theory of personality
Human drives (eros and thanatos)
Conflict between drives and individuals or
social norms
Social development a matter of learning to
channel sexual and aggressive urges into
socially acceptable channels
Erikson (1902-1994)
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Psychosocial theory of life stages
Extension of Freudian psychosexual theory
Considered entire life cycle, rather than first
5 years a la Freud
Recognized influence of societal, historical,
and cultural factors on personality
8 stages of development, each characterized
by a conflict to be resolved
Erikson (1902-1994)
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When the environment makes new demands on
people, conflicts arise
Faced with a choice of 2 ways of coping with the
conflict (adaptive vs. maladaptive)
Only once crisis resolves does one have the energy
to address next stages of development
With resolution comes personality change
Failure to resolve means conflict will recur
1. Oral-sensory
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Birth to age 1
Conflict: Trust vs. mistrust
Important event: Feeding
Infant only develops a sense of trust if
caregivers are consistently responsive to
basic needs
Must form trusting relationship with parents
to form with others
2. Muscular-Anal
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18 months to 3 years
Conflict: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Toilet training
Self confidence and control development
Toddler strives for auntonomy
Negative parenting or experiences can instill
sense of shame and incompetence
3. Locomotor
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3-6 years old
Conflict: Initiative vs. guilt
Independence
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Eager for responsibility
Sense of guilt may develop if child not allowed to
be responsible and do things on own
E.g., handing tools to dad
4. Latency
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Ages 6-12
Conflict: Industry vs. inferiority
School
As students, have means and need to be
productive and work on own
Peer interactions important for development
Lack of success in these areas - inferiority
5. Adolescence
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12-18 years
Conflict: Identity vs. role confusion
Peer relationships
Teen must formulate identity in areas of
politics, sex roles, occupation, etc.
6. Young adulthood
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18-40 years
Conflict: Intimacy vs. isolation
Romantic relationships
Must develop intimate relationships or suffer
sense of isolation
7. Mid-adulthood
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40-65
Conflict: Generativity vs. stagnation
Parenting
Must find some way to satisfy and support
the next generation
8. Maturity
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65+
Conflict: Ego identity vs. despair
Reflection on, and acceptance of one’s own
life
Fully accepting oneself and coming to terms
with mortality
Inability to do so = despair
Evolutionary perspectives
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Darwin & Natural Selection
Mechanisms underlying human behavior are
products of natural selection (evolved
because of survival benefit)
Freud and Erikson influenced
John Bowlby (1907-1990)
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Attachment – emotional bond between infant
and adult caregiver
Promoted by instinctive tendencies in both
partners
E.g., infants cries elicit distress in caregiver,
smiling and cooing when comforted,
reciprocal reinforcement
Cultural perspectives
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Biology emphasizes universal similarities,
cultural emphasizes flexibility of human
nature
Development is a matter of adapting to the
social norms and practical conditions of the
culture
Cultural look at Erikson
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Industry – coincides with age when school
starts in our society
Identity – we start deciding on careers
Intimacy – coincides with typical age for
marriage
Different cultures may have different norms,
and consequently different conflicts to
resolve at different ages/times
Urie Bronfenbrenner
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www.people.cornell.edu/pages/ub11/
Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology
Theory
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Network of interactions/interdependencies
among people, institutions, and clutural
constructs (e.g., tools, religion, modes of
communication) to which the developing
person must adapt psychologically
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Child’s ability to learn at school influenced
not just by course material, but parents’
attitudes re: education
Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology
Theory
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Microsystem: layer closest to the child; has
most influence
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relationships/interactions with immediate
environment (e.g., family, school,
neighborhood)
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reciprocal interactions (parents behavior
influences child, child’s behavior influences
parents)
Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology
Theory
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Mesosystem: layer provides structure
between structures of microsystem
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connection between teacher and parents,
church and community, etc.
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Exosystem: larger social system
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not directly interactive (parents workplace
schedule) but feels pos or neg influence
Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology
Theory
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Macrosystem: outer most layer of child’s
environment
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Cultural values, customs, laws
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trickle down effect on all other layers
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E.g., cultural determinants of who is involved
in raising the child
Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology
Theory
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Chronosystem: dimension of time as it
relates to child’s environments
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Elements can be external, such as timing of
parental death
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Internal - physiological changes within child
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With age, kids react differently to
environmental changes (more proactive)
Cognitive perspectives
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Piaget
Child as mentally active contributor to own
developments
changes in social behavior reflective of
underlying changes in way child understands
the world
Cognitive perspectives
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Vygotsky
concepts such as right/wrong, friend/enemy
exist in social environment and symbolized in
words
integrates cognitive and cultural perspectives
Kohlberg’s Moral Development
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Based on Piaget
Piaget - 2 stages divided at age 10
think about moral dilemmas in different ways
Young - rules are fixed and absolute
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consequence based
Older - judgement of motive/intention
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onset of formal operations
Kohlberg’s Moral Development
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6 stages of moral development
stages not a product of maturation, but of
socialization
Heinz steals drugs example
Focus on reasoning behind judgement
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages:
Level 1 - Preconventional Morality
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Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment
orientation
Similar to Piaget’s first stage
“It’s against the law to steal”.
Why is it wrong?… Because you get
punished.
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages:
Level 1 - Preconventional Morality
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Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange
Recognize there isn’t one universal “right” or
“wrong” passed down from authorities
different people have different viewpoints
Heinz may steal drugs if wants wife to live,
but might not if he wants a new wife
Consequence doesn’t define right/wrong, but
is viewed as a risk or consideration
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages:
Level 1 - Preconventional Morality
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Indications of appreciation of fair exchange
still see people as individuals and not as comembers of society
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages:
Level 2 - Conventional Morality
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Stage 3: Good interpersonal relationships
pre-adolescence
morality more than simple deals/exchanges
people should behave in “good” ways, live up
to expectations of society
View Heinz’s behavior as moral, because it is
well intentioned and altruistic
Pharmacist viewed as selfish, greedy
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages:
Level 2 - Conventional Morality
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Stage 4: Maintaining social order
stage 3 most applicable to 2 party dilemmas
involving close acquaintances
now person becomes concerned with society
as a whole
emphasis on obeying laws, respecting
authority, pulling societal weight
euthanasia verdict
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages:
Level 2 - Conventional Morality
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Stage 4: take the perspective of society as a
whole, view self as part of collective
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages:
Level 3 - Post-conventional
Morality
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Stage 5: Social contract & individual rights
people want to keep society functioning
functional society not always fair
Recognize differences in values but think all
rational people agree on 2 things:
Everyone entitled to basic rights
desire democratic process for change
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages:
Level 3 - Post-conventional
Morality
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Heinz has a duty to save wife that
supercedes law
Right to life: at stage 4, based on religious
doctrine or some authoritative principle that
legitimizes opinion
Stage 5 - based on what one thinks society
ought to value
working towards conception of “good” society
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages:
Level 3 - Post-conventional
Morality
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Stage 6: democratic process, while
desirable, does not invariably result in moral
decision making or change
somebody gets short end of stick
Federal budget
stage 6 aspires towards justice
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages:
Level 3 - Post-conventional
Morality
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Justice:
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treat all claims from all parties with impartiality
respect basic dignity of all individuals
principles of justice apply to all (Universal)
wouldn’t vote for a law that benefits some, but
hurts others
justice for all
Kohlberg’s “theoretical stage”
Summary of Kohlberg
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Stage 1: kids think that what authority says is
right, is right
Obey rules, avoid punishment
Stage 2: No longer see single authority; can
entertain differing view points
useful to make social exchanges for own
benefit
Summary of Kohlberg
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Stages 3 & 4: start thinking as members of
society bound by values, norms,
expectations
Stage 3 - emphasize being a good person
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Having helpful motives towards those you care
about
Stage 4 - shift focus to obeying laws to
maintain society as a whole
Summary of Kohlberg
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Stages 5 & 6: Less concerned about
maintaining society for it’s own sake, more
concerned with “what makes a good
society”?
Stage 5- basic rights and democratic process
allowing all voices to be heard
Stage 6 - justice
Summary thus far...
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3 Categories of social development
Biological - universal drives, instincts, stages
common of human nature
Cultural - development viewed as adaptation
to norms/values of culture
Cognitive - relationship between intellectual
dev. and social development
Summary thus far...
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As kids acquire greater understanding, the
behave towards others in more advanced
ways
Social Development
Continued…
Review…
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3 categories of social development
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Biological theories (universal drives, instincts)
Cultural theories (adaptation to cultural norms)
Cognitive theories (social dev is a product of
intellectual development)
Erikson & Bowlby, Bronfenbrenner, Kohlberg
Attachment and Bonding
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Infants develop an emotional bond with those
with whom most dependent
Subsequently use bonded caregiver as a
“home base” from which to explore
environment
Bowlby
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1950’s
Attachment theory
Attachment and Bonding
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“…an affectionate tie that one person or
animal forms between himself and another
specific one – a tie that binds them together
in space and time.” (Ainsworth)
Bowlby’s Attachment
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Found that securely attached kids
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Show distress when object of attachment leaves,
especially in unfamiliar environment
Show pleasure when reunited with mom
Show distress when approached by stranger,
unless mom reassures/comforts kid
More likely to explore unfamiliar environment if
mom present, than if mom is absent
Social referencing
Harlow’s Monkey’s
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Harry Harlow, 1959
Monkeys raised in cages with two surrogate
moms (bare wire vs. cloth)
½ fed from wire mom, ½ fed from cloth mom
Would monkeys attach to surrogate in lieu of
mom?
Which would be more effective in facilitating
attachment – feeding or tactile?
Harlow’s Monkey’s
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All monkeys treated cloth surrogate as
mother (regardless of feeding)
Clung to it for extended periods daily
Sought protection when threatened
Braver exploring when present
Press lever repeatedly to be able to see
it/her
Strange Situations Test
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Ainsworth
Infant and mother placed in unfamiliar room
with toys
Infant remains in room while mom and
stranger move in and out
3 attachment styles
Ainsworth’s Typology
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Securely Attached
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Explore room/toys confidently with mom present
Gets upset and explores less when mom gone
(with and without stranger)
Demonstrates preference for mom over stranger
Express pleasure when mom returns
Ainsworth’s Typology
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Avoidant attachment: Avoid mom and give
her cold shoulder
Anxious Resistant Attachment: No avoidance
but persistent but difficult to comfort when
distressed
70% Secure
20 % Avoidant
10 % Anxious Resistant
Reciprocal Parent-Child Influence
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Temperament influences parental
behaviour/interactions
Van den Boom (1994) – mothers of irritable
babies tend to withdraw emotionally
When parents of irritable children are
coached/instructed/supported in efforts to
parent/interact effectively, outcomes are
good
Attachment
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Through early developmental interactions
with primary caregivers, children develop
internal working model of self, others, and
their sense of self in relation to others
Model influences individual throughout
development
Secure = more confident, better problem
solving, emotional health, sociable
Attachment Disorders
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Inhibited RAD: failure to initiate/respond to
social interactions in developmentally
appropriate manner
Non-attachment disorder
Result of being deprived of opportunity to
attach, or by removal of primary object
without adequate replacement
Attachment Disorders
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Disinhibited RAD: diffuse attachments
Indiscriminate sociability
Lack of apprehension for strangers
High turnover of caregivers/incomplete
attachment with any one figure
One disrupted attachment that impacts
willingness to do so again
Socialization
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Caregivers serve as source of comfort &
security
Also vehicles for learning/practicing cultural
rules/norms/values
most early social interactions are with
caregivers
Helping & Giving Behaviors
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Instinctual
cross cultural
by end of first year, spontaneous giving
threshold nurtured and celebrated in some
cultures
helping with adult tasks (18-30 months)
Transition from self- to other-oriented
Empathy
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Capacity to sense and feel emotions others
feel
By age 2, clearly exhibit concern for
distressed others and respond with efforts to
comfort
Securely attached: more giving, helpful
Restraint
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Balance between exploring and appropriate
fear
Conflict between wants and
social/environmental limitations
Social referencing - looking to caregiver for
indications of whether to proceed or not
Restraint
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7-15 mos: avoids approaching if caregiver’s
expression suggests fear, disgust, anger
Increasingly verbal in 2nd year
2 1/2 - 3 years: reference absent caregiver
by recalling words (Vygotsky’s private
speech)
Attempts to negotiate (ambiguous cues vs.
desirable object)
Guilt
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Not inherently negative
Can facilitate self control
Crucial to social development and interaction
Empathy-based vs. Anxiety-based
Guilt deters aggression, moderates
selfishness, promotes helping
Parenting Style
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Authoritarian: obedience valued for it’s own
sake; high degree of power assertion
Authoritative: Concerned that kids learn
basic principles of right and wrong; value
inductive discipline over power assertion
Permissive: Most tolerant and least likely to
discipline; interventions motivated by
parental frustration
Play
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Universal forms of play
Rough-and-tumble: play fighting/chasing
Constructive: building/making things
Sociodramatic: imaginary roles
Formal games: sports, games with
established rules, competitive
Play
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Teaches kids to get along with each other,
and allows practice of survival skills
Predators practice hunting, prey practice
escaping, etc.
Play nurturing
Play fighting
Culture specific play activities
Mixed Age Play
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School vs. neighborhood
Qualitative differences of mixed age play
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less competitive
gentler
Exposure to new skills and info
Opportunity to consoliidate knowledge through
teaching
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
Gender Differences
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Biology vs socialization
sex vs. gender
Newborn males more irritable & less
responsive than females
6 mos: boys more fidgetty and more likely to
exhibit facial expression of anger
13-15 mos: girls more compliant (static
through adolescence)
Gender Differences
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Caregiver behavior
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Gentler and more verbal with girls
Discrepancy between treatment of males and
females dependent on degree of differentiation
between male/female roles in culture
Gender Differences - Peers
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Have begun to internalize cultural gender
expectations
recognize own gender and stability thereof
Attend most closely to people of own gender
and model behavior
Exaggerate male/female differences
Evolutionary value
Gender Differences - Peers
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Play primarily with own gender
Most aversion to opposite sex between 8-11
Stronger avoidance in girls until later
childhood
Boys avoidance of girls supported by social
sanctions imposed by both males and
females
Gender Differences - Peers
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Girls more likely to influence peer behavior
via polite suggestions
Boys more likely to use direct commands
Boys unresponsive to polite suggestions,
therefore resistant to female influence
Gender Differences - Boys
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Large, hierarchically organized groups
efforts to prove superiority and dominance
via competition and social coercion
King of the hill
Gender Differences - Girls
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Smaller, intimate groups
Cooperative play
Competition more subtle
Jumping rope
Adolescence
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Puberty until individual viewed by self and
others as member of adult society
Transition characterized by rebellion and risk
taking
Female onset = 10.5
Male onset = 12.5
Earlier onset than non-industrialized cultures
Adolescence
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Erikson - adolescence = identity crisis
Who am I? How do I fit in?
Rebellion vs. rejection
Rebellion linked more to physical maturation
than age
Peer Influences
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Emphasis shifts from parental influences and
models to peers
Content of peer interactions change from
play activities to thoughts/feelings
Delinquency training
Peer Influences
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Restructuring of established gender barriers
Dunphy (1963)
Cliques: close knit group
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3-9 members
same sex
best friends
substantial time together on daily basis
Peer Influences
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Crowd: larger group composed of several
cliques
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Selected contacts (parties, planned activities)
cross gender
provides safe environment for interacting with
opposite sex
opposite sex peers in social network tends to
increase with age
Delinquency & Risk Taking
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Myth of Invulnerability
Sensation seeking
Moffit
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Delinquency = pathological side effect of conflict
between early puberty and delayed acceptance
into adult world
Sex, crime, alcohol as adult activities
Delinquency & Risk Taking
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Judith Harris:
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juveniles engage in delinquency to set selves
apart from adult society
dress, act differently
goal is acceptance of own peers rather than
adults
Evolutionary perspective
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Young Male Syndrome: reproductive value of
risk taking
goal of achieving higher status, thereby
increasing attractiveness to females
Females also engage in peak levels of risk
taking and delinquency during adolescence
Fighting related to gossip/insults re: sexual
behavior that decreases reproductive options