Transcript ecosystems - SchoolRack

ECOLOGY I
Chapters 3 and 4
Ecology
- ECOLOGY – SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF
INTERACTIONS AMONG ORGANISMS
AND BETWEEN ORGANISMS AND
THEIR ENVIRONMENT
• BIOSPHERE – COMBINED PORTIONS
OF THE PLANET IN WHICH ALL LIFE
EXISTS
–
–
THIS INCLUDES: LAND, WATER & AIR
THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF LIFE ON
EARTH CONTRIBUTES TO AN EVERCHANGING, OR DYNAMIC BIOSPHERE
•
•
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION –
INDIVIDUAL, POPULATION,
COMMUNITY, ECOSYSTEM, BIOME,
BIOSPHERE
SOME ECOLOGISTS STUDY
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN A
PARTICULAR KIND OF ORGANISM
AND ITS SURROUNDINGS
•
•
•
•
•
SPECIES – GROUP OF ORGANISMS SO SIMILAR
TO ONE ANOTHER THEY CAN BREED AND
PRODUCE FERTILE OFFSPRING
POPULATIONS – GROUPS OF INDIVIDUALS THAT
BELONG TO THE SAME SPECIES AND LIVE IN
SAME AREA
COMMUNITIES – ASSEMBLAGE OF DIFFERENT
POPULATIONS THAT LIVE TOGETHER IN A
DEFINED AREA
ECOSYSTEM – COLLECTION OF ALL THE
ORGANISMS THAT LIVE IN A PARTICULAR
PLACE TOGETHER WITH THEIR NON-LIVING, OR
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
BIOME – GROUP OF ECOSYSTEMS THAT HAVE
THE SAME CLIMATE AND SIMILAR DOMINANT
COMMUNITIES
Biological Organization
1. Organism
2. Species.
3. Population
4. Community
5. Ecosystem
6. Biome
7. Biosphere
Insert book page picture
• REGARDLESS OF THE TOOLS THEY USE,
SCIENTIESTS CONDUCT MODERN
ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH USE THREE
BASIC APPROACHES: OBSERVING,
EXPERIMENTING, & MODELING
ENERGY FLOW
PRODUCERS
• OBTAIN ENERGY BY THE SUN;
SOMETIMES ENERGY IS STORED IN
INORGANIC CHEMICAL
COMPOUNDS
• EXAMPLES: ?????
•
AUTOTROPH – USE ENERGY FROM THE
ENVIRONMENT TO FUEL THE ASSEMBLY OF
SIMPLE INORGANIC COMPOUNDS INTO
COMPLEX ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
– GIVE EXAMPLES: PLANTS.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
– MOST AUTOTROPHS OBTAIN NUTRIENTS
USING SOLAR ENERGY AND A PROCESS
CALLED PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• THIS IS RESPONSIBLE FOR ADDING
OXYGEN TO, AND REMOVING CARBON
DIOXIDE FROM THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
• WHEN ORGANISMS USE CHEMICAL
ENERGY TO PRODUCE NUTRIENTS IN
THE ABSENCE OF SUNLIGHT, THIS
PROCESS IS KNOW AS PRODUCERS
–
GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF AN ORGANISM
WHO USES THIS PROCESS:
____________________________________
•
CONSUMERS – ORGANISMS THAT
RELY ON OTHER ORGANISMS FOR
FOOD ARE ALSO KNOWN AS
HETEROTROPHS
Types of consumers
1. Herbivores – obtain energy from
eating plants
2. Carnivores- eat other animals
3. Detrivores – feed on plant remains
and other dead matter. Ex. Mites,
earthworms, snails and crabs
4. Decomposers – break down organic
matter. Ex. Bacteria and Fungi
5. Omnivores – eat both
The Movement of Energy Through Ecosystems:
Food Chains
•
FOOD CHAINS: MAKE A MODEL
FOOD CHAIN. DRAW ARROWS TO
SHOW THE DIRECTIONS OF ENERGY
FLOW. (COYOTE, RAT,
GRASS/GRAINS, CAT)
Food Chains
Food Chains
FOOD WEB
• FOOD WEBS – MORE COMPLEX,
SHOWS FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG VARIOUS TYPES OF
ORGANISMS IN AN ECOSYSTEM
–
A FOOD WEB LINKS ALL THE FOOD
CHAINS IN AN ECOSYSTEM TOGETHER
The Movement of Energy Through Ecosystems:
Food Webs
• In most ecosystems energy does not follow simple straight
paths like those shown in a food chain.
• FOOD WEB- used to show many food chains together,
makes more sense
Food Web
TROPHIC LEVELS
• TROPHIC LEVELS – EACH STEP IN A
FOOD CHAIN OR WEB
–
–
PRODUCES REPRESENTS THE 1ST LEVEL
CONSUMERS MAKE UP THE 2ND, 3RD, OR
HIGHER LEVELS
The Movement of Energy Through Ecosystems:
Trophic Levels in a Food Chain
• 1st level always starts with a producer. (Plant)
• 2nd level consists of herbivores. Called
primary consumers.
• 3rd level consists of carnivores or omnivores
Called secondary consumers.
4th level tertiary or third order consumers- top
carnivores in an ecosystem.
Trophic Levels
• Question 1
• This is an example of a food web.
– A. true
– B. false
• Question 2
• How many trophic levels are illustrated
Below? .
–
–
–
–
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
• Question 3
• What organism is a producer?
–
–
–
–
A. caterpillar
B. lizard
C. green plant
D. snake
• Question 4
• This is an
example of a
food web.
– A. true
– B. false
• Question 5
• The heron is
____.
–
–
–
–
A. a producer
B. a consumer
C. autotroph
D. a herbivore
Food Webs
Fish, shrimp, killer whale, plankton, seals
Food Webs
Algae, egret, frog, snake
Food Webs
Birds, fungi, jaguar, lizards, termites
Food Webs
Carrot, fox, rabbit, sun
PYRAMIDS
• ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS – DIAGRAM
THAT SHOWS THE RELATIVE AMOUNTS
OF ENERGY OR MATTER CONTAINED
WITHIN EACH TROPHIC LEVEL
ENERGY PYRAMIDS
•
ENERGY PYRAMID – ONLY PART OF THE
ENERGY THAT IS STORED IN ONE TROPHIC
LEVEL IS PASSED ON TO THE NEXT LEVEL.
WHY IS THIS SO?
–
•
USE MUCH OF THE ENERGY THAT THEY
CONSUME FOR LIFE PROCESSES (RESPIRATION,
MOVEMENT, REPRODUCTION)
ONLY ABOUT 10% OF THE ENERGY
AVAILABLE WITH IN ONE TROPHIC LEVEL IS
TRANSFERRED TO ORGANISMS AT THE NEXT
TROPHIC LEVEL
BIOMASS
PYRAMID
• BIOMASS PYRAMID – TOTAL AMOUNT
OF LIVING TISSUE WITH IN A GIVEN
TROPHIC LEVEL. THIS REPRESENTS THE
AMOUNT OF POTENTIAL FOOD
AVAILABLE FOR EACH TROPHIC LEVEL
IN AN ECOSYSTEM
Biomass Pyramid
• BIOMASS – total
amount of living
tissue within a given
trophic level.
• Expressed in grams
or organic matter
per unit area.
• Pyramid represents
the potential food
available for each
trophic level.
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
• PYRAMID OF NUMBERS – BASED ON
NUMBER OF INDIVIDUAL ORGANISMS
AT EACH TROPHIC LEVEL
Pyramid of Numbers
• Based on the
number of organisms
at each trophic
level.
• Not all are in the
shape of a pyramid,
for example a tree
(the producer)
houses several
different insects and
birds but it is only one
organism.
• Question 1
• This would be best described as an
example of a(n) ___ pyramid.
–
–
–
–
A. energy
B. food
C. numbers
D. trophic
• Question 2
• The bird gains ___% of energy from the
cricket .
–
–
–
–
A. 900
B. 90
C. 10
D. 0.1
• Question 3
• The owl receives very little energy from
eating the bird. ___% of it is released
as heat between trophic levels. .
–
–
–
–
A. 900
B. 90
C. 10
D. 0.1
• Question 5
• ___% of the atmosphere is composed
of nitrogen..
–
–
–
–
A. energy
B. food
C. numbers
D. trophic
CYCLES OF MATTER
Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems:
The Water Cycle
• The water cycle consists of four distinct stages:
storage, evaporation, precipitation, and runoff. Water
may be stored temporarily in the ground; in oceans,
lakes, and rivers; and in ice caps and glaciers. It
evaporates from the earth’s surface, condenses in
clouds, falls back to the earth as precipitation (rain
or snow), and eventually either runs into the seas or
reevaporates into the atmosphere. Almost all the
water on the earth has passed through the water
cycle countless times. Very little water has been
created or lost over the past billion years.
Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems:
The Water Cycle
The Nutrient Cycles
1. Carbon
2. Nitrogen
3. Phosphorus
Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems:
The Carbon Cycle
- Key ingredient in living tissue
- Calcium carbonate – makes up skeletons and rocks
- Carbon dioxide – important component of the atmosphere
Four processes move carbon through its cycle
1. Biological – photosynthesis, respiration,
decomposition
2. Geochemical – erosion and volcanic activity release
carbon dioxide
3. Biogeochemical – burial and decomposition of dead
organisms and their conversion under pressure into
coal and fossil fuels
4. Human activities – mining, burning fossil fuels
Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems:
The Carbon Cycle
• Add diagram from book
Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems:
The Nitrogen Cycle
Required to make amino acids.
1. Atmosphere is 78% nitrogen gas. This form of nitrogen is not useable
by most organisms. Only some bacteria can use this form directly.
Live in legumes, convert nitrogen to ammonia in a process called
nitrogen fixation.
2. Once converted producers use them make proteins.
3. Consumers eat the producers and reuse the nitrogen to make their
proteins.
4. When any one organisms die the decomposers break down the
nitrogen compounds and return them to the soil where it can be
taken up again by producers.
Other soil bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas in a process called
DENTRIFICATION.
The Phosphorus Cycle
• Used to form DNA and RNA
• Not common in the biosphere
• Remains on land in rock, soil minerals or
ocean sediment
• As rocks and sediment wears down
phosphorus is released into streams and
rivers where it is dissolved
• Land phosphorus is absorbed by plants from
the soil where it moves through the food
web
•
RECYCLING IN THE BIOSPHERE
–
–
ENERGY AND MATTER MOVE THROUGH
THE BIOSPHERE VERY DIFFERENTLY
MATTER IS RECYCLED WITHIN AND
BETWEEN ECOSYSTEMS
•
NUTRIENT LIMITATION
– A LIMIT OF ONE OR MORE NUTRIENTS IN
THE ECOSYSTEM
– FARMERS USE FERTILIZERS TO BOOST
CROP PRODUCTIVITY
• RUNOFF FROM HEAVILY FERTILIZED
FIELDS CAUSES LIMITING NUTRIENTS
• ALGAE GROWTH CAN COVER THE
ENTIRE SURFACE OF THE WATER,
WHICH DISRUPTS THE EQUILIBRIUM OF
AN ECOSYSTEM
– OCEANS ARE CONSIDERED TO BE
NUTRIENT-LIMITING ENVIRONMENTS
• Question 5
• ___% of the atmosphere is composed
of nitrogen.
–
–
–
–
A. 100
B. 78
C. 50
D. 28
• Question 6
• Nitrogen enters the atmosphere
because soil bacteria converts nitrates
into nitrogen gas. This process is
called___.
–
–
–
–
A. nitrification
B. chemosynthesis
C. denitrification
D. gas exchange
• Question 7
• Burning fossil fuels and erupting
volcanoes contribute to the carbon
cycle.
– A. true
– B. false
ECOSYSTEMS &
COMMUNITIES
CHAPTER 4
CLIMATE
• WHAT IS CLIMATE?
ATMOSPHERE, TEMPERATURE, &
PERCIPITATION
• WEATHER
–
DAY TO DAY CONDITIONS ON EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE AT A PARTICULAR TIME
AND PLACE
•
CLIMATE – AVERAGE YEAR TO YEAR
CONDITIONS OF TEMPERATUER AND
PRECIPITATION
–
–
AFFECTED BY HEAT TRAPPED IN
ATMOSPHERE, LATITURE, WINDS, AND
CURRENTS, PERCIPITATION, SHAPE AND
ELEVATION OF PRECIPITATION
ENERGY FROM THE SUN DRIVES WEATHER
AND DETERMINES CLIMATE
•
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
–
–
BIOSPHERE – NATURAL BLANKET FOR
MAINTAINING SUITABLE TEMPS
CARBON DIOXIDE, METHANE, WATER
VAPOR TRAP HEAT ENERGY AND
MAINTAIN EARTH’S TEMPERATURE. LEADS
TO GREENHOUSE EFFECT
•
EFFECT OF LATITUDE ON CLIMATE
–
–
SOLAR RADIATION – STRIKE DIFFERENT
PARTS OF EARTH’S SURFACE AT AN
ANGLE THAT VARIES THROUGHOUT THE
YEAR
DIFFERENCES IN HEAT DISTRIBUTION WITH
LATITUDE HAS IMPORTANT EFFECTS ON
EARTH’S CLIMATE ZONES
•
3 MAJOR ZONES
–
–
–
POLAR – SUN’S RAYS AT LOW ANGLES,
VERY COLD
TEMPERATE – BETWEEN POLAR AND
TROPIC, CLIMATE VARIES WITH SEASON
TROPICAL – NEAR EQUATOR, RECEIVE
DIRECT SUNLIGHT
•
HEAT TRANSPORT IN BIOSPHERE
–
–
UNEQUAL HEATING OF EARTH’S
SURFACES DRIVES WINDS AND OCEAN
CURRENTS
DRY CLIMATE – LAND MASSES, LIKE
MOUNTAINS, MAKE MOIST AIR RISE,
ONCE IT MOVES TO THE OTHER SIDE OF
THE MOUNTAIN MOISTURE IS LOST
•
WHAT SHAPES AN ECOSYSTEM?
–
–
BIOTIC FACTORS – BIOLOGICAL
INFLUENCES ON ORGANISMS WITHIN AN
ECOSYSTEM
ABIOTIC FACTORS – PHYSICAL/NONLIVING; FACTORS THAT SHAPE THE
ECOSYSTEM
•
THESE FACTORS DETERMINE THE
SURVIVAL AND GROWTH OF AN
ORGANISM AND THE PRODUCTIVITY
OF THE ECOSYSTEM IN WHICH THE
ORGANISM LIVES
–
A HABITAT INCLUDED BOTH BIOTIC AND
ABIOTIC FACTORS. A HABITAT IS ALSO
KNOWN AS AN ORGANISM’S RESIDENCE
•
AN ANIMAL’S OCCUPATION IS ITS NICHE
– THIS TELLS US THE ORGANISM’S PLACE IN
THE FOOD WEB, RANGE OF
TEMPERATURES NEEDED FOR SURVIVAL,
TYPE OF FOOD EATEN, HOW IT OBTAINS
FOOD, WHEN AND HOW IT REPRODUCES
– NO TWO SPECIES CAN SHARE THE SAME
NICHE IN THE SAME HABITAT. HOWEVER,
DIFFERENT SPECIES CAN OCCUPY
NICHES THAT ARE VERY SIMILAR
COMMUNITY
INTERACTIONS
•
COMPETITION – ORGANISMS THAT ATTEMPT
TO USE AN ECOLOGICAL REASOURCE IN
THE SAME PLACE AT THE SAME TIME
– RESOURCE – ANY NECESSITY OF LIVE.
EXAMPLES – WATER, NUTRIENTS, LIGHT,
FOOD, SPACE
– COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE – NO
TWO SPECIES CAN OCCUPY THE SAME
NICHE IN THE SAME HABITAT AT THE SAME
TIME
•
PREDATION – ONE ORAGANISM
CAPTURES AND FEEDS ON ANOTHER
ORGANISM
–
THE KILLING AND EATING IS DONE BY THE
PREDATOR. THE ORGANISM EATEN IS THE
PREY
• SYMBIOSIS
– ANY RELATIONSHIP IN WHICH
TWO SPECIES LIVE CLOSELY
TOGETHER
MUTUALISM
• MUTUALISM – BOTH SPEICES BENEFIT
FROM THE RELATIONSHIP. EXAMPLE –
BEE POLLINATING A PLANT
Cleaner fish and
grouper
COMMENSALISM
• COMMENSALISM – ONE MEMBER OF
THE ASSOCIATION BENEFITS ANT HE
OTHER IS NEITHER HELPED OR
HARMED. EXAMPLE – SHARK FEEDS
AND OTHER FISH EATS REMAINS
PARASITISM
• PARASITISM – ONE ORGANISM LIVES
ON OR INSIDE ANOTHER ORGANISM
AND HARMS IT. EXAMPLES –
TAPEWORMS, TICKS, ETC…
Sea fish with lamprey
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
• ECOSYSTEMS ARE CONSTANTLY
CHANGING IN RESPONSE TO NATURAL
AND HUMAN DISTURBANCES. AS AN
ECOSYSTEM CHANGES, OLDER
INHABITANTS GRADUALLY DIE OUT
AND NEW ORGANISMS MOVE IN,
CAUSING FURTHER CHANGES IN THE
COMMUNITY
• PRIMARY SUCCESSION – OCCURS ON
SURFACES WHERE NO SOIL EXISTS.
EXAMPLE – VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
BUILD NEW ISLANDS OR COVER THE
LAND W/LAVA ROCK OR ASH
–
DESCRIBE A PIONEER SPECIES – FIRST
SPECIES TO POPULATE THE AREA
(VOLCANIC AREAS – USUALLY LICHEN)
Primary Succession
• SECONDARY SUCCESSION – A
DISTURBANCE CHANGES AN EXISTING
COMMUNITY WITHOUT REMOVING
THE SOIL. EXAMPLES – CLEARED OR
PLOWED LAND OR LAND LEFT AFTER A
FIRE
•
SUCCESSION IN MARINE ECOSYSTEM
–
–
–
DEAD WHALE FALLS TO THE OPEN OCEAN
FLOOR. SOON IT ATTRACTS SCAVENGERS AND
DECOMPOSERS
WITHIN A YEAR, MOST OF THE TISSUE HAS BEEN
EATEN. THE CARCASS SUPPORTS ONLY A
SMALLER # OF FISH. DECOMPOSITION OF THE
WHALE’S BODY ENRICHES THE SURROUNDING
SEDIMENTS WITH NUTRIENTS
WHEN A MALE SKELETON REMAINS,
HETEROTROPHIC BACTERIA MOVE IN. THEY
RELEASE CHEMICALS THAT SERVE AS ENERGY
SOURCES TO OTHER BACTERIA THAT ARE
CHEMOSYNTHETIC AUTOTROPHS
1. Mutualism
2. Commensalism
• Only one organism
benefits, the other
organism neither
benefits or is
harmed.
3. Parasitism
• One organism benefits by harming
another organism, WITHOUT KILLING
THEIR HOST! Normally smaller than their
host.
Ex. Dogs with fleas
Sea lamprey and fish
• Question
• What type of symbiotic relationship is
illustrated?
– A. Mutualism
– B. Commensalism
– C. Parasitism
• Question
• What type of symbiotic relationship is
illustrated?
– A. Mutualism
– B. Commensalism
– C. Parasitism
• Question
• What type of symbiotic relationship is
illustrated?
– A. Mutualism
– B. Commensalism
– C. Parasitism
• Question
• What type of symbiotic relationship is
illustrated?
– A. Mutualism
– B. Commensalism
– C. Parasitism
PICTURES!
HOOKWORMS
•
•
Wuchereria bancrofti: Filariasis
A. Epidemiology:
Found in all tropical regions, (Brugia only in certain
areas of Asia). Mosquito vector varies. Over 250 million people infected
worldwide. Humans are the definitive hosts. B. Mode of transmission:
Female mosquito (esp. Anopheles and Culex sp.) deposits infective
larvae on the skin while taking a blood meal. Since the adult worms do not
multiply in humans and larvae do not multiply in mosquitoes, disease severity
depends on the number larvae-transmitting bites an individual receives. C.
Clinical manifestations: Early infections are asymptomatic. Later, fever,
lymphangitis and cellulitis develop. Nocturnal periodicity of microfilariae
present in the blood dictates when blood samples are drawn. D. Pathology:
Larvae penetrate the skin and migrate to the lymph nodes. When
mature, adults produce microfilariae which circulate in the blood and are
ingested by mosquitoes to complete the cycle. Edema in the legs and
genitalia results from obstruction. Elephantiasis occurs in patients who have
been repeatedly infected over long periods of time. E. Laboratory diagnosis:
Thick blood smears (samples drawn at night) reveal microfilariae.
Serologic tests are not useful. F. Treatment and Prevention:
Diethylcarbamazine is only effective against microfilariae (Ivermectin
used also). No therapy for adult worms. Prevention involves mosquito control
(insecticides, repellents, netting and protective clothing). Disfiguration
caused by the edema cannot be reversed.
•
•
Onchocerca volvulus: Agent of River Blindness
A. Epidemiology:
Africa, Central, and South America. Over 40 million
people infected. B. Mode of transmission: The bite of the blackfly transmits
infective larvae that migrate into the subcutaneous tissue. Onchocerciasis is
also called “river blindness” because the backflies that transmit the disease
develop in rivers and most infected individuals live near these waterways. C.
Clinical manifestations: Pruritic nodules and papules form due to the host
inflammatory response to adult worm proteins. Dermatitis, inflammatory
lesions such as keratitis, iritis and chorioretinitis and eosinophilia result. D.
Pathology:
Female adult worms produce microfilariae that migrate
through the subcutaneous tissue. Fibrous nodules develop around the adult
worms, especially over the iliac crests. Microfilariae concentrate in the eyes,
causing lesions that can lead to blindness. Some lymphatic obstruction has
been documented, esp. in Africa. Elephantiasis results. E. Laboratory
diagnosis:
No serology or blood smears done, since filariae are never
blood-borne. Biopsy of affected skin reveals microfilariae. F. Treatment and
Prevention:
Ivermectin is effective against microfilariae. No therapy for
adult worms. Prevention involves vector control (insecticides, repellents,
netting and protective clothing). Ivermectin is preventative as well.
WARNING!!!!!
A PARTICLE OF DUST IN THE EYE.
OR SO THEY THOUGHT!
Symbiosis Quiz
Commensalism, Parasitism or Mutualism?
1. In this type of symbiotic relationship one
organism benefits while the other organism
neither benefits or is harmed.
2. In this type of symbiotic relationship both
organisms benefit.
3. In this type of symbiotic relationship one
organism benefits while the other organism
is harmed.
4. True or False? Parasites often
kill their hosts?
5.
What type of relationship
occurs between the sea
anemone and the clown fish?
6.
What type of relationship
occurs between a butterfly and
the flower?
BONUS: What does the word
symbiosis mean?
Warm Up
1. Give one example of an abiotic
factor.
2. _________ are animals that are both
carnivores and herbivores.
3. Which of the following is does not
represent a population?
a. All the tree frogs in Houston.
b. All the grass frogs in a pond in
central park New York City.
c. All the frogs in Texas.
#1
Answer to #1
Answer #2
Answer #3
#4
4. Which is the main difference
between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes?
a. Eukaryotes have a nuclear
membrane.
b. Organelles are found only in
prokaryotes.
c. The cells of prokaryotes contain
cytoplasm.
d. Prokaryotes contain an
endoplasmic reticulum.
#5
#6
#7
#8
Warm Up: Vocabulary
1. Give 2 examples of an abiotic factor.
2. T/F Populations are made up of only
one species?
3. T/F Communities are made up of
only one species?
4. T/F My niche as a teacher is room
227.
Warm Up #3
• You do not need to copy this on your
paper.
•You have 8 minutes to STUDY
for your Food Chains
Quiz!!!!!!!!!!
• Get out your own sheet of paper and
something to write with.
Warm Up #4
• What is the ultimate source of energy
for all food chains?
• Define omnivore.
• What percent of energy does the
plant store from the sun?
• How much of that energy is passed on
to each trophic level?
Test today!!!!!
• You have 8 minutes to study.
• After your 8 minutes is up place your
review sheet only upside down under
your desk.
• If you talk during the first part of the
exam you will lose the privilege to use
your review sheet
• You may only use your review sheet!!!