Transcript Eco09LandEco

Chap. 9 Landscape Ecology
鄭先祐 (Ayo)
國立台南大學 環境與生態學院
2008年2月至6月
1 Landscape Ecology: Definition and
Relation to Levels-of-Organization
Concept
 Landscape ecology considers the development
and dynamics of spatial heterogeneity, spatial
and temporal interactions and exchanges across
heterogeneous landscapes, influences of spatial
heterogeneity on biotic and abiotic processes,
and management of spatial heterogeneity for
society’s benefit and survival.
Landscape ecology is an integrative field of
study.
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Benchmark books
Landscape ecology had its beginnings in North
America during the 1980s.
 McHarg(1969): Design with nature
 Turner (ed.) (1987): Landscape heterogeneity and
disturbance.
 Hansen and di Castri (1992): Landscape boundaries:
consequences for biotic diversity and ecological flows.
 Forman (1997): Land mosaic: the ecology of
landscape and regions.
 Turner er al. (2001): Landscape ecology in theory and
practice.
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2 Landscape Elements
Landscape matrix, is a large area of similar
ecosystem or vegetation types
A landscape patch (區塊) is a relatively
homogeneous area and differs from the
surrounding matrix.
A landscape corridor (廊道) is a strip of
environment that differs from the matrix on either
side.
 disturbance corridors, planted corridors, regenerated
corridors, resource (natural) corridors, and remnant
corridors.
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Landscape mosaic
 coarse-grained landscape (habitat),
vagility is low relative to the size of habitat
patches.
譬如， white-footed mouse
 fine-grained, organism has high vagility
relative to the size of habitat patches.
譬如，a red-tailed hawk
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Fig. 9-1. (A) Example of landscape patches
embedded within an agricultural landscape matrix.
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Fig. 9-1. (B) photograph showing how landscape
corridors (fence rows), are maintained to connect
landscape patches.
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Fig. 9-1.
Diagram
depicting a
“heat island”
along
interstate 86
form Atlanta,
Georgia, to
Charlotte,
North Carolina.
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Fig. 9-2 (A) possible
configurations of natural
(N) and artificial (A)
patch-matrix
relationships.
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Fig. 9-2. (B) Aerial photograph of the woodland
cemetery and Arboretum in Dayton, Ohio,
depicting a NpAm patch-matrix relationship.
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Fig. 9-3. Research
design depicting twelve
0.04 hectare
experimental grassland
patches.
Four patches contain
enhanced cover, four
patches contain
reduced cover, and
four patches are
undisturbed controls.
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Fig. 9-4. (A) Aerial
photograph of stud site
depicting four high-quality
40-m2 fragmented patches
and four 160-m2
nonfragmented patches.
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3 Biodiversity at the Community
and Landscape Levels
 ordination (序列) is used to designate the
ordering of species populations and
communities along gradients.
 continuum or gradient analysis (連續性或
梯度分析) is used to designate the
gradient containing the ordered
populations or communities.
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


ecotone
edge, edge effect, edge species
four main classes of boundary traits
1.
2.
3.
4.
Origin and maintenance
Spatial structure
Function
Temporal dynamics
 Similarity index (S) = 2C / A+B


A, B = number of species in sample A, and B
C= number of species common to both
samples.
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Fig. 9-7. Distribution of populations of dominant trees along
a hypothetical gradient (0-10), illustrating the arrangement
of component populations within a continuum community.
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4 Island Biogeography
(島嶼生物地理學)
 MacArthur and Wilson (1963, 1967), island
biogeography theory
The number of species on an island is
determined by the equilibrium between the
immigration of new species and the extinction
of those species already present.
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Mechanisms:
island biogeography
(島嶼生物地理學)
The equilibrium theory of island
biogeography
Empirical evidence
Biogeography of habitat islands
Conservation applications
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Biogeography of
habitat islands
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Schematic
illustration of some
principles for the
design of nature
reserves.
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Fig. 11. Baja California
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表1. Cortez 海域島嶼間生物地理之比較。
項 目
50km2 之海洋島嶼
所含之平均數
陸橋性島嶼比海洋性島
嶼含有更多的種類？
陸生 沿岸
植物 魚類
105
13
9.3 3.5
1.3
No
No
Yes
Yes
Very
Yes
No
有一
點
Yes
Yes
Very
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
有一點
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
有一點
0
2
0
0
0
0
5
35
0
47
16
69
No
島嶼上所含之種類比大
陸塊上還少嗎？
Holocene才出現之海洋
性島嶼所含的種類數比
老生島嶼還少嗎？
距大陸愈遠，種類數愈
少嗎？陸橋性島嶼
海洋性島嶼
特有性：陸橋性島嶼
海洋性島嶼
陸棲 陸棲 蜥蜴 陸棲
鳥類 爬蟲
哺乳
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Fig. 13. 島嶼生物地理學(修改自Case & Code, 1987)
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Fig. 14. Diagram of experimental design. Plots with
solid edges represent enclosures preventing access
by sheep. Broken lines mark delineated plots in the
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9 landscape
ecology
grazed
area.
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表2. 於不同大小面積之隔離區與牧養區內，顯花
植物的種類數之比較。
隔離區
牧養區
項目
小型 中型 大型 小型 中型 大型
N
32
8
2
16
4
1
總數
29
26 20
26
16
15
最多/各區 15
15 15
13
12 (15)
最少/各區
3
8 15
5
8 (15)
全區
34種
26種
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表3. 各型樣區的種類數目之變化。
項 目
種類1985
1986
1987
遺失種類
1985-1986
1986-1987
新增種類
1985-1986
1986-1987
小型 中型 大型
全部
29
30
33
26
27
29
20
20
25
34
33
40
4
2
5
3
3
2
5
1
5
5
6
5
3
7
4
6
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海洋性島嶼
離岸200公里以上
Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic
archipelagos.
a. Extant native birds of the Hawaiian islands
b. Galapagos land birds
c. Galapagos Darwin's finches
d. Galapagos
ferns.
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海洋性島嶼
離岸200公里以上
Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic
archipelagos.
e. Galapagos insects
f. Galapagos flowering plants
g. Caribbean bats.
h. Facroes islands ground beetles.
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海洋性島嶼
離岸200公里以上
Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic
archipelagos.
g. Caribbean bats.
h. Facroes islands ground beetles.
i.. Canary Islands birds
j. Canary island ground beetles.
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沿岸島嶼
離岸100KM以內
Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for near shores
archipelagos.
a. Seabirds on islands off of Scotland.
b. Extant marsupials on islands in the Bass Straits.
c. Reptiles on islands in the Bass Straits.
d. Sand dune mammals on islands in the Bass Straits.
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沿岸島嶼
離岸100KM以內
Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for near shore
archipelagos.
e. Birds of the California Channel islands.
f. Reptiles and amphibians of the California Channel islands.
g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.
h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.
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沿岸島嶼
離岸100KM以內
Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for near shores
archipelagos.
g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.
h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.
i. Reptiles and amphibians of the islands in the Gulf of
California.
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陸域隔離區
Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial
habitat isolates.
a. Mammals of East African national parks.
b. Birds of East African national parks.
c. Mountaintop small mammals.
d. Mountaintop plants.
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陸域隔離區
Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial
habitat isolates.
e. Mountaintop birds
f. Birds in New Jersey woodlots
g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.
h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.
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陸域隔離區
Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial
habitat isolates.
g. Mammals of Australian wheat belt reserves.
h. Lizards of Australian wheat belt reserves.
i. Mammals of U.S. national parks.
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切割棲息地後，所含的生物種類數反而增加，
可能的原因：
 1. Habitat diversity
 2. Population dynamics.








Priority effects
Multiple stable equilibria
Edge effects
Disturbance
Species pool and dispersal ability.
Colonization
Evolutionary effects.
Extinctions.
 3. Historical effects.
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當代的切割理論與生物保育策略
「一大」或是「多小」？
(1) maximizes the mean size of reserves
(2) maximizes the number of reserves
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Mechanisms that produce
high species diversity
Evolutionary time
Ecological time
Climatic stability
Climatic predictability
Structural heterogeneity
Primary production
Biotic interactions
Intermediate levels of disturbance
Geographic area
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Consequences of species
diversity
One early principle of community ecology
held that diversity and stability are causally
related.
1. Species diversity leads to complex
ecological interactions.
2. Complex systems are inherently more
stable.
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5 Neutral Theory (中性理論)
Neutral theory, in ecology, treats all species as if
they had the same per capita rates of birth and
death, dispersal, and even speciation.
Neutral theories are useful in formulating and
testing null hypotheses about how communities
and ecosystem are assembled in landscapes.
Hubbell (2001), the unified neutral theory of
biodiversity and biogeography (生物地理學).
 ex. 島域生物地理學
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 metacommunity
 the neutral theory estimates the dominancediversity curve for the source area, termed the
metacommunity, based on the number called
theta.
 Theta (θ), the product of two parameters
One specifying the size of the metacommunity
The other the rate of speciation
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Fig. 9-10. Dominance-diversity curve for a sample of
324,592 trees and shrubs of 1175 species in a 50-hectare
forest plot in Lambir Hill National Park, Sarawak, Borneo.
dashed line is the curve expected (Θ=310), solid line is
the observed. Rare species are rarer than predicted.
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6 Temporal and Spatial Scale
Ecological process vary in their effects or
importance at different spatial and
temporal scales.
The concept of scale encourages analyses at
different levels of organization.
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生命科學的時間與空間的範圍
基本資料取自Kohn (1989), p.1096。
8
地球：生物界
生物學
6
台灣生態
4
空
1km
2
間
的
生物体
1m
0
小型生物
量
度
大型生物
-2
無脊椎動物
1mm
原生物
-4
胞器
1um -6
細胞
病毒
蛋白質
-8
小分子
1A -10
-16
-14 -12
1 微秒
-10
-8
-6
1分
-4
-2
0
2
1天
1年
時 間 的 量 度
4
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8
10
1 百萬年
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Fig. 9-13. Diagram depicting the intermediate disturbance
hypothesis.
The number of species in a community tends toward a
maximum at intermediate levels of disturbance.
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7 Landscape Geometry
Landscape geometry (The study of
shapes)
Landscape architecture
Patch stratification, soft versus hard edges,
and three-dimensional use of habitat space
The geometry and configuration of
landscape elements affect ecological
processes at the population and
community levels.
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Fig. 9-14. (A) Aerial
photograph of eight
1600m2
experimental
patches of
contrasting shape,
n=4 replications
per shape.
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Fig. 9-14. (B) An example of radial-arm irrigation,
which creates circular landscape patterns.
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Fig. 9-15. Diagram depicting (A) the three
major landscape elements (patch, corridor,
and matrix).
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(B) The relative abundances of edge and
interior species in patches and corridors
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Fig. 9-15. C. a bottomland forest peninsula (半島)
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Fig. 9-15. (D) examples of contrasting patch shapes
of equal size but different geometry.
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Patch connectivity
Fig. 9-16. Aerial
photograph depicting the
replicated research design
used to evaluate the
effects of corridor width
and presence on the
population dynamics of the
meadow vole.
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Fig. 9-17. Diagram depicting the difference between habitat
loss (top) and habitat fragmentation (bottom). The same total
area of deforestation can result in the loss of species
requiring large home ranges when habitat is fragmented.
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8 Concept of Landscape
Sustainability
 sustainability
To keep in existence, to support, to endorse
without failing, to maintain
Maintaining natural capital and maintenance
of resource
 natural capital vs. economic capital
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9 Domesticated Landscapes
 agroecosystems and agrolandscapes
1. pre-industrial agriculture
2. industrial agriculture
3. reduced-input conservation agriculture
 Alternative agriculture
 Urban-industrial technoecosystems
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Fig. 9-18. Agroecosystem phases
(A) pre-industrial agriculture
(B) Industrial agriculture
(C) Low-input sustainable agriculture
IPM= integrated pest management
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Fig. 9-18. Agroecosystem phases
(B) Industrial agriculture
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Fig. 9-18. Agroecosystem phases
(C) Low-input sustainable agriculture
IPM= integrated pest management
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Fig. 9-19. Field of sunflower in the agricultural
Midwest of the US.
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Fig. 9-20. Model illustrating the need to link natural,
life-support ecosystems with urban-industrial
ecosystems, including a reward-feedback loop
necessary to provide for a sustainable landscape.
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都市的生態足跡
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Fig. 9-21.
home site
on a
stream
peninsula
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Fig. 9-22.
Map outlining
the Odum
conservation
easement
plan for
Beech Creek
Reserve,
located in
Athens,
Georgia.
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問題與討論
[email protected]
Ayo 台南站：http://mail.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/
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