Transcript FLL_CS3draft - Fisheries Conservation Foundation

Restoration of Pacific Salmon
in Columbia River Basin
Abstract
The number of Pacific salmon returning to spawn in the Columbia River has declined drastically over
the last 150 years. Annual spawning runs prior to European settlement in the 19th century are estimated
to have been in the range of 10-16 million salmon; in contrast, only approximately 1 million returned
per year during the late 1990s. Many native stocks have gone extinct and a number of others are
presently listed as threatened or endangered by extinction under the Endangered Species Act. The initial
declines were largely due to the overharvest of adult salmon returning to spawn in the river. During the
same period, logging, mining, agriculture, and urbanization resulted in the degradation of aquatic
habitats in many parts of the Columbia River Basin. The most significant habitat alteration was the
construction of numerous dams in the river system for the purposes of hydroelectric power generation,
flood control, and irrigation. These dams made significant portions of the river inaccessible to
migrating adult salmon and have turned mainstem river habitats into reservoirs with very little flow.
These changes have negatively impacted the ability of smolts to migrate to the sea. Lastly, hatcheries
constructed by federal, state, and tribal authorities have resulted in millions of fingerling salmon being
deposited into the river each year. These fish compete with naturally spawned smolts for resources in
the river, leading to the loss of local adaptations when hatchery-reared fish return to the river as adults
and spawn with native stocks. Habitat loss, hydropower dams, and hatcheries all continue to challenge
the persistence of natural salmon populations in the Columbia River system.
Introduction
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Pacific salmon populations have declined dramatically in the
Columbia River and its tributaries over the past century and a
half. This crisis is the direct result of human development of the
river.
Extensive recovery efforts have been unsuccessful.
Today, thirteen evolutionarily significant units (ESUs) are listed
as endangered or threatened by extinction under the Endangered
Species Act. Hundreds of populations have already gone extinct.
Introduction
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The Columbia River Basin (green area in map) is the dominant water
system in the Pacific Northwest, draining an area of 258,500 square
miles (an area approximately the size of France).
The river provides power,
food (through irrigation),
transportation (through
navigation), recreation,
fisheries, and, to a lesser
extent, municipal and
industrial water supply to
human populations.
These anthropogenic uses
have ultimately led to the
depletion of native salmon
populations.
Introduction
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Pacific salmon are anadromous (adults migrate from the ocean to freshwater
streams to spawn, then offspring migrate to the ocean from the streams to
grow). This complicated life history makes them especially vulnerable to
changes in the river environment.
Eggs are laid
in freshwater
stream gravel
Adults spawn in
home streams
Migration back to
freshwater
spawning grounds
Larvae develop
in freshwater
stream gravel
Fry emerge from
gravel, develop
into smolts, and
migrate to ocean
Fish grow and
mature in ocean
Species and populations differ in the time of the year
and part of the Basin in which they return to spawn.
Introduction
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Salmon of the Columbia Basin
(steelhead are anadromous trout, not technically salmon, but all five species will
be referred to as salmon in this presentation for the sake of simplicity)
Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha )
Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta)
Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka)
Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
Introduction
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Human development has drastically changed river environments in the
Columbia River Basin. The major threats to salmon are:
Harvest
Hydropower
Habitat degradation
Hatcheries
Introduction
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Prior to European settlement, the Columbia River produced some of the
largest salmon runs in the world: 10-16 million adult salmon from 200
distinct stocks returned to the river annually.
Native American tribes value salmon as food
and spiritual symbols. Stocks persisted with
traditional harvest methods.
Introduction
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European settlement of the Columbia River Basin
1805
Lewis and Clark reach Columbia River Basin
Commercial logging begins in the Pacific
1827 Northwest
There are 37 sawmills operating in the Pacific
1850 Northwest
First railroad constructed in proximity to the
1851 Columbia River
First large-scale irrigation project in the
1859 Columbia Basin
Commercial fishing industry begins with
1861 packing of salted salmon on the Columbia River
First salmon cannery is begun 50 miles upstream
1866 of the mouth of the Columbia
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This graph indicates how many pounds of salmon were harvested in
the Columbia River Basin.through time.
Introduction
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19th century cannery at Astoria,
Washington
1866: First cannery begins operation with two
boats harvesting salmon in the Columbia Basin.
Introduction
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1872: One hundred boats harvesting salmon in
the Columbia Basin.
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1874: Two hundred and fifty boats harvesting
salmon in the Columbia Basin.
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1878: First hatchery established in the
Columbia Basin.
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1878: Five hundred boats harvesting salmon in
the Columbia Basin.
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1881: Twelve hundred boats harvesting salmon
in the Columbia Basin.
Legislative
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1883: Peak year for Chinook harvest (40
million lbs).
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1889: Canneries begin processing sockeye
salmon and steelhead for the first time. Coho
and chum salmon are accepted a few years later.
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1911: Peak year for salmon landings (all
species combined), 49.5 million pounds.
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1912: Ocean trolling for salmon begins off the
mouth of the Columbia River.
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1933: First mainstem dam is completed (Rock
Island Dam).
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1941: Grand Coulee Dam is completed; salmon
lose access to 500 miles of the upper Columbia
River.
Legislative
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1967: Hells Canyon Dam is completed; salmon
cannot access the upper Snake River.
Legislative
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1991: First Columbia salmon stocks listed
under the Endangered Species Act.
Legislative
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Introduction
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1993: U.S. District Judge orders government to
alter dam operations to lessen hazards to
salmon.
Legislative
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1994: Salmon fishing banned off Oregon and
Washington coasts for first-time.
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1995: Federal government dictates more water
must be used for fish rather than power
production and irrigation.
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Harvest and Columbia River Salmon
Harvest was the first activity to depress salmon populations in the Columbia River Basin.
The commercial fishing industry captured so many fish that there were not enough adult
salmon reaching the spawning grounds to produce the next generation to be harvested.
The predictable timing and location of the salmon runs made them
easy to capture in large numbers using a variety of methods (nets,
traps, and an invention called a fish wheel that scooped up
migrating salmon in baskets and deposited them in a holding
compartment).
Cannery dock workers.
During the first few decades of the
Columbia River fishery, fisherman
often captured more salmon than the
canneries could process and the corpses
of the unprocessed fish were returned
to the river as waste.
Concerns about the declining salmon fishery led the
United States Senate to commission a report in 1887 that
concluded it was “ . . . a sort of a miracle that any fish
escape to go up the river.” (Jones 1888)
Photo of the collection baskets
of a fish wheel.
Introduction
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Harvest and Columbia River Salmon
Early warnings did not prevent the current crisis because the short-term economic benefits of harvest
were given precedence over long-term conservation, the harvest restrictions were weak and poorly
enforced, and, at the time, knowledge of salmon biology was limited.
Today, harvest restrictions cannot solve the Columbia
River salmon crisis (because of the effects of habitat
degradation, hydropower, and hatcheries). In addition,
ineffective harvest regulations will lead to the extinction
of endangered and threatened stocks.
The effectiveness of current management actions is
limited by:
(1) The erroneous interpretation of the number of salmon
passing certain key hydroelectric dams as estimates
of spawning stock abundance. To set effective harvest
regulations, managers need to have accurate
estimates of the productive capacities of individuals
stocks; these estimates can only be achieved through
measuring the number of adult salmon returning to
individual tributaries in the Columbia River.
(2) The failure to account for fishing
mortality – particularly in the ocean. Many
fish are caught but not kept (they could be the
wrong size, wrong species, etc.). A significant
number of fish returned to the ocean do not
survive. These losses are not considered in
management plans.
Introduction
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Habitat Degradation and Columbia River Salmon
Human land-use activities have dramatically
degraded the freshwater habitats required for
salmon survival and reproduction. Many
salmon stocks travel hundreds of miles (over
several weeks or months) to migrate between
freshwater reproductive habitats and the
ocean.
These stocks are unlikely to persist when
human development alters river
environments to the extent that they no
longer resemble the historic habitats in
which the fish are adapted to survive and
reproduce. Managers recognized that half
of the best spawning and rearing habitat
had been lost or severely degraded by
1932. (Oregon Fish Commission 1933)
Introduction
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Habitat Degradation and Columbia River Salmon
Human land-use activities have reduced the amount of spawning (and rearing)
habitat for salmon and have made migration between reproductive habitats
and the ocean much more difficult.
Logging
Agriculture
Livestock grazing
Mining
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Habitat Degradation and Columbia River Salmon
First and foremost, salmon require cold, clean water to survive.
Salmon physiology is controlled by environmental temperature, therefore seasonal
water temperatures have influenced when salmon migrate between the ocean and
freshwater spawning habitats. Human land-use has reduced the amount of riparian
vegetation and cover, resulting in water temperatures being more than 2°C higher
than historical levels in 855 managed watersheds (National Academy of Sciences 1996). These
elevated temperatures affect fish directly through influences on metabolism and
indirectly through food web changes.
Salmon require deep pools, riparian cover, undercut banks, and in-stream woody
debris to avoid predation during river migration. These habitat features have been
reduced by human development of the river.
In particular, large accumulations of wood provide refuge from predators, create low
velocity resting areas, lead to the scouring of deep pools, trap sediments and organic
material that contribute to food webs, and create a diverse and stable habitat. There
is much less woody debris present in steams today due to logging, grazing, and
other developments of riparian areas.
Introduction
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Habitat Degradation and Columbia River Salmon
Salmon eggs and fry incubate in the small spaces between gravel on the bottom of streams.
Human activities that lead to erosion and sedimentation destroy reproductive areas by
covering them with silt.
When juvenile salmon rise out of the gravel, they need low-velocity habitats that have cover,
small food particles, and refuge from predators — habitats that typically include woody
debris, overhanging banks, and riparian vegetation. Sedimentation can deplete populations of
invertebrate prey and impair the ability of young salmon to capture the prey that are
available.
Summer temperatures in most Columbia River tributaries
(particularly those reaches that have been altered by human
activities) far exceed the thermal optimum for larval salmon
development (15°C) and often the lethal thermal maximum
(24°C; Rhodes et al. 1994).
Loss of habitat anywhere along the migratory path from the
spawning grounds to the ocean can imperil a breeding
population of salmon.
Juvenile salmon in a habitat with
woody debris.
Introduction
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Hydropower and Columbia River Salmon
Harvest and habitat degradation had already depressed Columbia River Basin salmon
populations by the time the hydropower system was developed in tributaries in the late 19th
century. The Rock Island Dam was the first dam completed on the mainstem of the Columbia
River in 1933.
Today there are 14 mainstem dams on the Columbia and Snake
Rivers. Basin-wide, there are 400 dams used for hydropower
and/or irrigation.
Although the salmon of the Columbia Basin were
challenged by human development prior to the
construction of the hydropower system, dams have
had devastating impacts on salmon.
The construction and operation of dams has:
1. Drastically reduced the amount of spawning
habitat in the Basin.
2. Changed flow conditions encountered by
migrating salmon.
3. Altered habitats in many reaches.
4. Created physical barriers to salmon migration.
Introduction
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Hydropower and Columbia River Salmon The Grand Coulee Dam (completed in
1941) was the first dam to block salmon passage on the Columbia River mainstem. The Hells
Canyon Dam (completed 1967) blocked upstream passage to a large portion of the Snake River.
Today, 55% of historic spawning and
rearing habitats are blocked or
inundated by dams (Northwest Power
Planning Council 1992).
Grand
Coulee
Dam
Hells
Canyon
Dam
MAP OF MAJOR DAMS IN THE BASIN
MAP OF AREA BLOCKED BY DAMS
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Hydropower and Columbia River Salmon
Natural river flows have been altered
by dam operations which hold large volumes of water in upstream reservoirs in order to
provide water for irrigation and power generation at times of the year when natural flows
would not be sufficient. As a result, current flow patterns differ from the historic flow regimes
to which salmon are adapted.
The altered flow regimes may have the greatest
effect on juvenile salmon migrating to the ocean.
Historical records show that wet years (and therefore
years with more flow) are correlated with better
salmon production (Anderson et al. 1996), and that
impoundment of the Columbia and Snake Rivers has
decreased the migration speed of yearling chinook
and steelhead (Giorgi et al. 2002).
Salmon smolt (juvenile)
In addition to extending the amount of time it takes
juvenile salmon to migrate to the ocean, dams have created markedly different habitats through
much of the river. Rather than a flowing riverine system, today most of the mainstem river
consists of reservoirs with little or no flow. These reservoirs are inhabited by different
invertebrate communities (the main source of food for juvenile salmon) than flowing river
segments. In addition, reservoirs are the ideal habitat for many invasive species, such as walleye
and bass, that have been introduced to the river and now feed on juvenile salmon migrating to
the ocean.
Introduction
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Hydropower and Columbia River Salmon
Most mainstem dams on the Columbia River (generally
100 feet tall) pose a challenge to the migration of adult
and juvenile salmon.
Adults migrating upstream may pass the dams by using
fish ladders or navigation channels.
Juvenile salmon migrating downstream may pass dams
by four routes:
1. Passing through the powerhouse (the
interior portion of the dam where the water
turns the turbines that generate energy)
2. Passing over the spillway (the exterior of
the dam used to pass water that is not used
for power generation)
3. Through navigation channels (locks and
other channels used for ship passage, not
used often and not shown in figure)
4. Through fish ladders (adult fish are much
more likely to use fish ladders than juvenile
fish)
Relevant
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Introduction
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Hydropower and Columbia River Salmon
Fish ladders have proven to be an effective
technological solution for adult salmon passage. Recent studies
suggest 98% adult salmon survival at each dam on the lower
Columbia and Snake Rivers (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the Bureau
of Reclamation, and Bonneville Power Administration 2006).
Improving juvenile passage has been more challenging.
Research conducted shortly after the construction of mainstem
dams indicated that juveniles passing through powerhouses were
injured or kill by contact with turbines. Dams have been fitted
with screen systems that direct juveniles away
from turbines and into bypass systems, which
have made significant improvements in survival.
The recognition that juveniles are vulnerable to
predation after passing through dams has led
managers to capture a portion of juveniles in
bypass systems, load them onto barges, and
transport them through the mainstem of the
river. Predator removal programs have also
been created to help improve juvenile survival.
Fish ladder
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Introduction
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Hatcheries and Columbia River Salmon
Producing fish in hatcheries has been considered a primary means of mitigating the
reduction in salmon spawning naturally due to human developments in the river (and
an alternative to other means of conservation, such as harvest restrictions and habitat
restoration). Although hatcheries are capable of releasing large numbers of juvenile
salmon into rivers (approximately 200 million salmon are released into the Columbia
Basin each year), recent evidence suggests that hatchery fish do not perform as well
in the natural environment as wild fish.
In recent decades, 80% of adult salmon
returning to the river were hatched and
reared in hatcheries (Northwest Power Planning
Council 1992, National Research Council 1996). Even so,
the hatchery program has failed to achieve
the goals of mitigating habitat loss and
degradation. The National Fish Hatchery
Review Panel (1994) and National Research
Council (1996) both concluded that the
objectives and role of artificial propagation
needed reconsideration.
Introduction
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Hatcheries and Columbia River Salmon
Hatchery produced fish have negatively affected salmon recovery in three ways:
1. Artificial production has taken resources away from other recovery efforts. Prior to
1980, 43% of recovery expenditures went to hatcheries, 1% of funds were spent on
habitat (General Accounting Office 1992). In recent years 40% of funds went to hatcheries and
6% went to habitat (General Accounting Office 1993, 2002).
2. Artificial production leads to competition between wild and hatchery fish. Fish
produced in hatcheries compete with wild fish for food and habitat resources once they
are released into natural environments. There is potential for wild fish to be swamped
by the release of large numbers of hatchery-reared juveniles into environments (each
environment can only support a certain number of fish). This concern is especially
relevant to the populations that are threatened or endangered by extinction ( and
therefore already have very low natural reproduction). This competition is particularly
damaging if the hatchery fish are unlikely to survive to return and contribute to
reproduction as adults. There are now a number of studies showing reduced
performance for hatchery-origin fish relative to wild fish in most comparisons (Fleming
and Peterssen 2001, Berejikian et al. 1996, 1997, 1999, 2001a, 2001b; Kostow et al. 2003).
Introduction
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Hatcheries and Columbia River Salmon
3. Direct genetic effects can occur when hatchery fish breed with wild fish. Studies
have shown that the offspring produced by these matings usually have greater
mortality and lower reproductive success relative to the offspring produced by
matings between wild fish (Leary et al. 1995; Fleming and Peterssen 2001).
In addition to producing inferior offspring, numerous studies have shown that these
matings results in a loss of genetic variation within and among populations (Allendorf
and Ryman 1987; Currens et al. 1990; Williams et al. 1996; Einum and Fleming 2001; Utter 2002). Genetic
variation is the raw material for adaptation and evolution, so losing variation may
limit a population’s abilities to adapt to future (or current) environmental change.
Local adaptations are likely to be lost when the hatchery-produced fish are
genetically dissimilar from the wild fish they mate with, or were produced by very
few parents (Hindar et al. 1991; Waples 1991).
Introduction
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Conflict regarding Columbia River salmon restoration revolves around how much human
activities in the Basin should be restricted in attempts to restore salmon. Stakeholders can
generally be split into those who support salmon conservation at the expense of economic and
recreational activities and those who want to minimize the impacts of salmon restoration on
human activity within the Basin. However, the reality is that people exist along a continuum,
with those supporting the removal of mainstem dams from the river and the prohibition of nearly
all activities that impact salmon on one end, and those who do not want to allow salmon
conservation to impact economic activity on the other.
Commercial Fishermen
Power Companies
SALMON ARE THE
PRIORITY IN BASIN
Recreational
Fishermen
SALMON
SUBORDINATE
TO OTHER
ACTIVITIES
Logging
Industry
Native American Tribes
Agriculture/
Livestock
Industry
Introduction
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Columbia River Interstate Compact
Created in 1915, a compact was developed between Washington and Oregon to
coordinate commercial fishing seasons and regulations in the Columbia River. The
fish and wildlife departments of the two states set seasons and regulations for five
fishing zones between the river mouth and Bonneville Dam. A sixth zone is
exclusive for Native American fisheries. The decisions made for zones 1-5 must
leave enough fish to fulfill the legal requirement that Native fishers have rights to
half the fish in the river. A U.S. District Court presently oversees harvest
regulations through U.S. vs. Oregon proceedings.
Magnuson-Stevens Act
Regulation of ocean harvest is set by the Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation
Act and the Pacific Salmon Treaty (1985 treaty designed to foster cooperation
between U.S. and Canadian governments and stakeholders regarding salmon
harvests).
Introduction
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Conflicts
Endangered Species Act
Relevant
Legislation
Pacific Salmon Recovery Areas
In 1991, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) received a petition to
protect Northwest Salmon under the Endangered
Species Act (ESA).
As a first step, the Northwest and Southwest
Fisheries Science Centers conducted a systematic
review of all anadromous west coast salmon
species between 1994 to 1999. This review
identified 52 Pacific salmon Evolutionarily
Significant Units (ESUs), five of which were
listed as endangered, and 21 were listed as
threatened with extinction under the ESA.
(weblink to most recent ESU info)
Thirteen ESUs inhabit the Columbia River Basin.
NOAA split the Basin into two separate regions
for developing recovery plans: a
Willamette/Lower Columbia recovery domain
and an Interior Columbia recovery domain.
Legislative
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COLUMBIA
BASIN
DOMAINS
Introduction
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Columbia Basin ESUs listed under ESA
Endangered Species Act
Technical Recovery Teams (assembled by
NOAA to identify the scientific basis for
salmon recovery) have designated critical
habitat for all but the most recently listed
Coho salmon ESU.
Status
Critical
habitat
designat
Listed
ed
Recovery
plan filed
Threatened
Apr. 1992 Mar. 1993
Draft Mar. 2006
Chinook, Snake R. spring/sum. Threatened
Apr. 1992 Dec. 1993
Draft Mar. 2006
Chinook, Lower Columbia R.
Threatened
Mar. 1999 Sept. 2005 Interim Feb. 2006
Chinook, Upper Columbia R.
Endangered Mar. 1999 Sept. 2005 FINAL Oct. 2007
Chinook, Upper Willamette R.
Threatened
Mar. 1999 Sept. 2005 Interim Feb. 2006
Chum, Columbia River
Threatened
Mar. 1999 Sept. 2005 Interim Feb. 2006
Coho, Lower Columbia River
Threatened
Jun. 2005 In progress Interim Feb. 2006
Sockeye, Snake River
Endangered Nov. 1991 Dec. 1993
Draft Mar. 2006
Steelhead, Snake River Basin
Threatened Aug. 1997 Sept. 2005
Draft Mar. 2006
Steelhead, Upper Columbia R.
Endangered Aug. 1997 Sept. 2005 FINAL Oct. 2007
Evolutionarily
Significant Unit
Chinook, Snake River fall
Steelhead, Middle Columbia R. Threatened
Mar. 1999 Sept. 2005 Prop. Sept. 2008
Steelhead, Lower Columbia R.
Threatened
Mar. 1998 Sept. 2005 Interim Feb. 2006
Steelhead, Upper Willamette R. Threatened
Mar. 1999 Sept. 2005 Interim Feb. 2006
Final recovery plans have been
accepted for only two ESUs. The
other ESUs are at different stages
in the recovery plan’s development
process.
Introduction
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Endangered Species Act
The development of salmon recovery plans has been fraught with legal challenges under the
Endangered Species Act (ESA). For example, the first draft recovery plan for Snake River
salmon was issued by the technical recovery team in 1995, however, environmental interests
thought the plan did not go far enough in ensuring that acceptable proportions of smolts survived
downriver migration, and economic interests thought the recommended plans went too far. As a
result of these differing opinions, Snake River recovery plans have not progressed beyond the
draft stage over the past 13 years.
Federal judges have rejected each of the four sets of biological opinions (BiOps) that NOAA has
released since 1993 (most recently in 2004). Under the ESA, NOAA is required to develop BiOps
that direct federal agencies to take specific actions in order to avoid jeopardizing listed species.
BiOps direct recovery efforts while recovery plans are being developed. The groups that have
filed legal challenges to BiOps have included environmental organizations, fishing organizations,
state fish and wildlife agencies, Indian tribes, electric utilities, and industries that rely on water or
electricity from the Columbia River Basin. Judges have ruled that the actions set forth by NOAA
in BiOps were illegal in that they did not offer the level of protection required by listing under the
ESA. The greatest obstacle has been the failure of the BiOps to include changes in hydropower
operations that could be expected to improve the survival of migrating salmon. NOAA released
the fifth biological opinion in May 2008. The National Wildlife Federation challenged the
opinion in July 2008.
Introduction
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Relevant
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Effectiveness
The most recent status review of the Pacific salmon ESUs (completed by NOAA in 2005) changed the
status of one ESU from endangered to threatened and listed the thirteenth ESU for protection under the
ESA. No ESUs were delisted (i.e., had recovered).
The PacificOoean salmon fishery was declared a failure and closed in May 2008 due to historically low
salmon returns. Disaster funds have been disbursed to fisherman.
The scope of the Columbia River salmon crisis is enormous: each of the four major factors challenging
salmon recovery would present a substantial conservation challenge by themselves, the impacted area is as
large and developed as many countries, and the conservation actions with the best chance of success would
all present serious economic impacts. The hydropower system presents the primary obstacle to salmon
recovery at this point; even if the effects of habitat, harvest, and hatcheries were minimized, salmon
populations would be likely to remain depressed as long as hydropower operations were not significantly
altered. It is difficult to conceive of any legislation that would be able to resolve a situation as large and
complication as the Columbia River Salmon Recovery.
Additional Resources
Books:
RETURN TO THE RIVER: RESTORING SALMON TO THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 2006. Richard N. Williams, eds. El
Sevier Academic Press, Burlington, MA. (weblink)
Internet:
Columbia River History Project (http://www.nwcouncil.org/history/Default.asp): Website operated by the Northwest
Power and Conservation Council that has extensive information on biological, historical, and conservation/management
topics regarding the Columbia River.
Northwest Regional Office (NOAA, http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/): Website operated by the government office responsible
for directing Pacific salmon recovery efforts. Includes information on general conservation/management topics as well as
actions related to the Endangered Species Act.
Salmon Recovery.gov (http://www.salmonrecovery.gov/): Website operated by the Federal Caucus, which consists of
eight agencies that play a role in natural resource conservation in the Columbia Basin. Includes both news and historical
information on recovery efforts.
Pacific Fishery Management Council (http://www.pcouncil.org/): Website for the agency responsible for the management
of the ocean salmon fisheries. The site provides basic information regarding their role in managing salmon.
Glossary:
Anadromous: A life history that includes migration from the ocean to freshwater to breed. Anadromous
fishes begin their lives in freshwater as eggs and/or developing young, migrate to the ocean for some
period of their life, and then return to freshwater to reproduce.
Evolutionarily significant units: A population or organisms that is considered distinct for the purposes
of conservation. The term can apply to any species, subspecies, geographic race, or population. ESUs are
often referred to as stocks when discussing fish or marine animals. ESUs are the basis for protection
under the Endangered Species Act, where to be considered an ESU the organisms in question must be
substantially reproductively isolated from other conspecific populations and represent an important
component in the evolutionary legacy of the biological species.
Mainstem: The principal river within a drainage basin, into which smaller tributaries are linked.
Riparian: Interface between terrestrial and aquatic habitats.
Semelparous: A life history in which organisms reproduce once in their lifetime, often dying shortly
thereafter.
Smolt: Juvenile salmon that has begun the migration from freshwater to the sea.
Stock: Subpopulations of a particular species of fish, for which intrinsic parameters (growth, recruitment,
mortality and fishing mortality) are the only significant factors in determining population dynamics,
while extrinsic factors (immigration and emigration) are considered to be insignificant.
References
Allendorf, F.W., and N. Ryman. 1987. Genetic management of hatchery stocks. Pages 141-160 in N. Ryman and F. Utter, eds. Population
genetics and fishery management. University of Washington Press, Seattle.
Anderson, D.A., G. Christofferson, R. Beamsdorfer, B. Woodward, M. Rowe, and J. Hansen. 1996. StreamNet: Report on the status of Salmon
and Steelhead in the Columbia River Basin-1995. Bonneville Power Administration. DOE/BP-65130-1. Portland, Oregon. 76 p.
Berejikian, B.A., S.B. Matthews, and T.P. Quinn. 1996. Effects of hatchery and wild ancestry and rearing environments on the development of
agonistic behavior in steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fry. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 53:2004-2014.
Berejikian, B.A., E.P. Tezak, S.L. Schroder, C.M. Knudsen, and J.J. Hard. 1997. Reproductive behavioral interactions between wild and
captively-reared coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). ICES Journal of Marine Science 54:1040-1050.
Berejikian, B.A., E.P. Tezak, S.L. Schroder, T.A. Flagg, and C.M. Knudsen. 1999. Competitive differences between newly emerged offspring
of captively reared and wild coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 128:832-839.
Berejikian, B.A. 2001a. Release of captively-reared adult salmon for use in recovery. World Aquaculture 32:63-65.
Berejikian, B.A., E.P. Tezak, and S.L. Schroder. 2001b. Reproductive behavior and breeding success of captively-reared Chinook salmon
(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). North American Journal of Fisheries Management 21:255-260.
Chapman, D.W. 1986. Salmon and steelhead abundance in the Columbia River in the nineteenth century. Transactions of the American
Fisheries Society 115:662-670.
Countant, C.C. 1998. Turbulent attraction flows for juvenile salmonid passage at dams. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. ORNL/TM-13608.
Oak Ridge, TN. 28 pp. (http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/1998/3445604452090.pdf)
Currens, K.P., C.B. Schreck, and H.W. Li. 1990. Allozyme and morphological divergence of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) above and
below waterfalls in the Deschutes River, Oregon. Copeia 1990:730-746.
Einum, S., and I.A. Fleming. 2001. Implications of stocking: ecological interactions between wild and released salmonids. Nordic Journal of
Freshwater Research 75:56-70.
Fleming, I.A. and E. Petersson. 2001. The ability of released hatchery salmonids to breed and contribute to the natural productivity of wild
populations. Nordic Journal of Freshwater Research 75:71-98.
General Accounting Office (GAO) 1992. Endangered species: Past actions taken to assist Columbia River Salmon. US General Accounting
Office. Report to Congressional Requesters, GAO/RCED-91-173BR. Washington, DC.
General Accounting Office (GAO) 1993. Endangered species: Potential economic costs of further protection for Columbia River salmon. US
General Accounting Office. Report to Congressional Requesters, GAO/RCED-93-41. Washington, DC.
General Accounting Office (GAO) 2002. Columbia River salmon and steelhead: Federal agencies’ recovery responsibilities, expenditures and
actions.. US General Accounting Office. Report to Congressional Requesters, GAO/RCED-02-612. Washington, DC.
Giorgi, A.E., M. Miller, and J. Stevenson. 2002. Mainstem Passage Strategies in the Columbia River System: Transportation, Spill, and Flow
Augmentation. Doc. 2002-3. Northwest Power Planning Council. Portland, Oregon. 97 pp.
Henjum, M.G., J.R. Karr, D.L. Bottom, J.C. Bednarz, S.G. Wright, S.A. Beckwitt, and E. Beckwitt. 1994. Interim protection for latesuccessional forests, fisheries, and watersheds: National forests east of the Cascade Crest, Oregon and Washington. The Wildlife Society,
Bethesda, Maryland.
References (continued)
Jones, William A., Salmon Fisheries of the Columbia River, 50th Cong., 1st sess., 1888, S. Exec. Doc. 123, SS 2510
Kostow, K.E., A.R. Marshall, and S.R. Phelps. 2003. Naturally spawning hatchery steelhead contribute to smolt production but experience
low reproductive success. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 132:780-790.
Leary, R.F., F.W. Allendorf, and G.K. Sage. 1995. Hybridization and introgression between introduced and native fish. American Fisheries
Society Symposium: Uses and effects of cultured fishes in aquatic ecosystems 15: 91-101.
National Academy of Sciences (NAS). 1996. Upstream. Salmon and society in the Pacific Northwest. Committee on Protection and
Management of Pacific Northwest Anadromous Salmonids. National Academy Press.
National Fish Hatchery Review Panel. 1994. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Fish Hatchery Review. The Conservation Fund, The
National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. Report. Arlington. Virginia.
National Research Council. 1996. Upstream: salmon and society in the Pacific Northwest. Report on the Committee on Protection and
Management of Pacific Northwest Anadromous Salmonids for the National Research Council of the National Academy of
Sciences. National Academy, Press. Washington DC.
Northwest Power Planning Council. 1992. Columbia River Basin Fish and Wildlife Program. Document 92-21A. Portland, Oregon.
Oregon Fish Commission. 1933. Biennial report of the Fish Commission of the State of Oregon to the Governor and the thirteenth
legislative assembly. Portland, Oregon.
Rhodes, J.J., D.A. McCullough, and J.F.A. Espinosa. 1994. A course screening process for evaluation of the effects of land management
activities on salmon spawning and rearing habitats in ESA consultations. Technical Report 94-1, Columbia River Inter-tribal
Fish
Commission, Portland Oregon.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the Bureau of Reclamation, and Bonneville Power Administration. 2006. Protecting Salmon: Highlights,
Endangered Species Act Federal Columbia River Power System 2005 Progress Report.
Utter, F.M. 2002. Kissing cousins: Genetic interactions between wild and cultured salmon. Pages 119-135 in B. Harvey and M. MacDuffee,
eds. Ghost runs: the future of wild salmon on the North and Central Coasts of British Columbia. Rainforest Conservation
Society, Victoria, British Columbia.
Waples, R. S. 1991. Genetic interactions between wild and hatchery salmonids: lessons from the Pacific Northwest. Canadian Journal of
Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, (48 (Supplement 1))124-133.
Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, and Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. 2002. Status report. Columbia River fish runs
and fisheries, 1938-2000. 2002. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife and Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife.
Olympia, Washington, and Clackamas, Oregon. (http://wdfw.wa.gov/fish/columbia/2000_status_report_text.pdf)
Williams, R.N., D.K. Shiozawa, J.E. Carter, and R.F. Leary. 1996. Genetic detection of putative hybridization between native and introduced
rainbow trout populations of the Upper Snake River. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 125:387-401.
Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha )
Young Chinook remain in freshwater for 12–18 months
after hatching before traveling downstream to estuaries.
They remain in estuaries for several months before
entering the Pacific ocean. Chinook spend one to five
years in the ocean before returning to rivers to spawn.
Historically, Chinook were the most abundant species in
the Columbia River and are economically valuable and
culturally prized among many Native American Tribes.
River development is responsible for the decline in Chinook runs. Dams have blocked access
to many of the historic spawning areas and inundated others. Spawning and rearing areas have
been lost to irrigation, logging, and mining.
The National Ocean and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) has identified
eight ESUs within the Columbia River
basin (weblink). One ESU is listed as
endangered under the Endangered
Species Act, four ESUs are listed as
threatened, and three are unlisted.
Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
Young coho spend about one year in their natal
streams after hatching. Coho spend one or two
years in the ocean before returning to spawn,
usually at age 3.
Commercial catches of coho peaked in 1925, then declined until the 1960s when advances in
hatchery production resulted in extensive stocking during the latter half of the 20th century.
Today, the coho returning to the Columbia River are almost entirely spawned and reared in
hatcheries (natural production averages less than 10% of returning adults).
The sole ESU of Coho salmon in the
Columbia River has been listed as
threatened under the Endangered Species
Act (weblink).
Chum Salmon (Oncorhynchus keta)
Young chum salmon migrate to sea immediately
after emerging from the gravel. Most spend three
years in the ocean before returning to spawn.
Although they are the most widely distributed
Pacific salmon species, they are the least
commercially valuable and commercial fishers
often choose not to fish for them because of their
low market value.
Historically, chum salmon were very abundant in the Columbia River Basin, with millions
of pounds of commercial landings prior to the early 1940s. Chum salmon have existed at
very low numbers since the second half of the 20th century, and returning adults are almost
entirely wild, naturally spawned fish.
The sole ESU of Chum salmon in the
Columbia River has been listed as
threatened under the Endangered
Species Act (weblink).
Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka)
Young sockeye spend at least one full year in
freshwater lakes before migrating to the ocean. Most
fish spend two years in the sea before returning to
the rivers to reproduce as four year olds.
Columbia River sockeye are the southernmost runs in North America, and consist almost
entirely of two wild stocks (in the Okanogan and Wenatchee Rivers). Historic run sizes were
as large as 3 million fish. Fewer than 100 Snake River sockeye have returned to the Columbia
River mouth since 1985. Most of the historic production of sockeye salmon occurred in lakes
in the uppermost reaches of the Columbia and Snake rivers, which have now been blocked
from ocean passage by the construction of dams.
One of the three designated sockeye
ESUs in the Columbia River has
been listed as threatened under the
Endangered Species Act.
Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
Most juvenile steelhead spend 2–3 years in
freshwater before migrating to the sea, then
return to the river after two years in the ocean.
Unlike other Columbia River salmonids,
steelhead do not have strict semelparous life
histories, about 5% of adults survive to spawn
in more than one reproductive season.
Annual steelhead catches ranged from 29,000 – 124,100 during 1953 – 1995, but declined to
6,400 – 13,100 during 1996 – 1999. Commercial steelhead fishing has been prohibited since
1975.
There are five designated ESUs in the
Columbia River basin, one of which has
been listed as endangered, and four of
which have been listed as threatened under
the Endangered Species Act.
Effects of Logging on Columbia River Salmon Populations
The first sawmill was operating in the Columbia River Basin as early as 1827 and
the timber industry grew rapidly as the Columbia River Basin was settled during the
19th century. The highest value timber species and oldest trees were historically
more abundant in low-elevation valleys, leading to more logging activity in riparian
areas (Henjum et al. 1994).
Timber harvest remains a widespread industry today, with most logging conducted
on higher elevation upland forests. Decades of logging has required the construction
of extensive road systems throughout the Basin, creating sediment that is
transported to streams by precipitation.
Removing trees from riparian zones (1) eliminates the source of woody debris
(critical to many ecosystem processes), (2) reduces shade (thereby leading to
warming of streams), and (3) reduces the stability of stream banks (leading to
erosion and sedimentation).
Effects of Agriculture on Columbia River Salmon Populations
Irrigated agriculture began in the mid-1800s, when early settlers of the Columbia
Basin recognized that the basin’s soil was rich, yet received limited rainfall.
Agriculture (and irrigation) expanded throughout the 20th century, culminating with
the Columbia Basin Project, an immense project to irrigate 671,000 acres of Central
Washington, that was completed in 1952.
One of the greatest impacts of agriculture on aquatic resources is the reduction in
stream flows when water is taken out of streams to irrigate fields. The reduced
volume of water in streams results in some habitats being too shallow and warm for
salmon migration and rearing.
Water control structures (such as dams and diversions) block fish movements and
historically diverted fish from streams into fields and ditches.
Effects of Livestock Grazing on Columbia River Salmon Populations
European settlers brought large numbers of sheep and cattle to the Columbia River
Basin during the late 1800s. Livestock grazing continues in the basin, and more than
a century of grazing has led to significant deterioration of riparian environments.
Livestock affect aquatic ecosystems through (1) the direct trampling of banks and
channels, (2) the removal of riparian vegetation, and (3) the introduction of their
wastes to streams.
Grazing has produced wider, more open stream channels that carry water that is
both warmer and more turbid than it has been historically. Sedimentation leads to
loss of spawning and rearing habitats and fecal inputs can reduce oxygen
concentration to lethal levels.
Effects of Mining on Columbia River Salmon Populations
Historically, mining has been carried out in many areas of the Columbia River
Basin. Today it is not as widespread as other land-use activities, but its effects are
still visible in dredge piles.
The most obvious impact of mines is the large amounts of sediment put into
streams. Mining activities can destroy banks and riparian vegetation and lead to
stream channelization. In addition, toxic substances removed from mines can
contaminate streams for long periods of time.