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Ecosystem Management And
Preservation
Ecosystem Preservation
– Boreal Forests, etc.
Semi-Natural Ecosystems
• Ecosystems that have
been modified by
some human activities
such as logging,
fishing and grazing
but which are still
dominated by native
species
Early Conservation Efforts
• 3000 YA – Ikhnaton
sets aside land for
game preserve
• Asoka – 272-232 BCE
declared some animals
can’t be killed, forests
not burned
Modern National Parks – Yellowstone
N.P. - 1872
Hayden survey of Yellowstone – 1870
Yellowstone National Park –
Army Bike Patrol
Reserves
• Reserves – any natural or semi-natural
ecosystem that is protected from most
forms of human use - however, we must
remember that reserves go by several
different names - national parks, refuges,
national monuments, national wilderness
areas, preserves and more; with many
regional and local versions of reserves too
Reserve Selection
Reserves are developed by a variety of mechanisms:
1. Government action – usually at a national level, but may
happen at regional or local level as well
2. Land purchases by private individuals and conservation
organizations (such as The Nature Conservancy)
3. Actions of indigenous peoples and traditional societies
4. Development of biological field stations – usually
combine biodiversity protection and research with
education
Grand Canyon
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
Houston Toad
The Nature Conservancy – active
since 1951 in the US
Nature Reserves Managed by native
people – Arnheim land, Australia
Biological field stations as Reserves
Creating Preserves
Creating new reserves requires the following steps:
1. Identifying priorities for conservation
2. Determining those areas of each country that
should be protected to meet conservation
priorities
3. Linking new protected areas to existing
conservation networks, using techniques such as
gap analysis
Setting Priorities
1. Distinctiveness (or irrereplaceability) – an
ecosystem that consists of primarily rare or
endemic species or that has other unusual
attributes (scenic value, geological features) is
given highest priority
2. Endangerment (or vulnerability) – species in
danger of extinction are of greater concern than
those that are not
3. Utility – species that have present or potential
value to people are given more conservation
priority than species of no obvious use to people
Distinctive Ecosystem – Peat Bogs
Rarity – European Bison
European Bison Distribution
Light green – Holocene range; Dark green – late Middle Ages;
Red – current distribution
Utility – wild apple Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan Apple Region circled
Determining which areas should
be protected
1. The Species Approach – focus on focal
species (indicators, flagship or umbrella
species)
2. The Ecosystem approach – save enough
representatives of each ecosystem (at least
10%) can save most biodiversity
3. The Hotspot Approach – save areas that
have high numbers of species – especially
rare or endemic species
Flagship species – Eurasian Lynx
Umbrella Species – Northern
Spotted Owl
Indicator species – Freshwater
mussels
Ecosystem Classification
Ponderosa Pine Forest
Hotspots
Hot spots or centers of diversity – are areas
with high levels of species diversity and
usually also high levels of endemism – thus
become key areas to preserve – at least 34
global hotspots have been identified
34 Biodiversity Hotspots
34 Biodiversity Hotspots
Continental U.S. Biodiversity Hotspots
Protected Areas in the U.S.
Hotspots and Protected Areas in the U.S.
Habitat Occupied and Reserves for
Hawaiian Finches
Hotspots on Mt. Mulanje, Malawi
Rare and Endangered Species
in the US
• Andy Dobson examined the distributions of 900 rare and endangered
species in the US and found:
• 0.8 to 3.3 percent of the land in the lower 48 states provides habitat for
just over 50% of the rare and endangered species
• At risk reptiles and amphibians occupy 0.68% of US land; endangered
fish take up the most space - 3.33 %
• San Diego County, California is a hot spot for endangered fish,
mammals and plants
• Santa Cruz County, California is a hot spot for endangered arthropods,
reptiles, amphibians, and plants
• 4 counties in Hawaii are hot spots for endangered birds and plants
Is saving hotspots enough?
• in Great Britain 43% of birds with narrow
habitat ranges did not occur in hot spots
• in Australia 54% of birds with narrow
habitat ranges did not occur in hot spots
Gap Analysis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Data are compiled on the species, ecosystems and physical features of
the region – sometimes referred to as conservation units or ecoregions
Conservation goals are identified, such as amount of area to be
protected for each ecosystem
Existing conservation areas are reviewed to determine what is
protected already and what is not (identifying the gaps)
Additional areas are identified to help meet the conservation goals
(filling the gaps)
Additional areas are acquired for conservation and a management
plan is developed and implemented
The new protected areas are monitored and management plans
adjusted
Idaho Ecoregions
– birth of GAP analysis
Idaho – Cedar-Hemlock Forest
Idaho – Western Juniper Shrubland
General issues in reserve design
– the 4 Rs
• Representation – the protected area should contain as
many aspects of biodiversity (populations, species,
habitats, etc) as possible
• Resiliency – protected areas must be sufficiently large to
maintain all aspects of biodiversity in a healthy condition
for the foreseeable future, including the predicted impacts
of climate change
• Redundancy – protected areas must include enough
examples of each aspect of biodiversity to ensure its longterm existence in the face of future uncertainties
• Reality – the must be sufficient funds and political will,
not only to acquire and protect lands, but also to
subsequently regulate and manage the protected areas
More specific questions:
• How large must a nature reserve be to effectively protect
biodiversity?
• Is it better to have a single large protected area or multiple
smaller reserves?
• How many individuals of an endangered species must be
included in a protected area to prevent extinction of the
species?
• What is the best shape for a nature reserve?
• When a network of protected areas is created, should the
areas be close together or far apart? Should they be
connected to each other or isolated from each other?
The Fate of Island Reserves –
How big is big enough?
Thomas Lovejoy
Minimum Critical Size Study Reserves
Edge of Minimum Critical Size
Study Reserves
Basic Reserve Design
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Big reserve better than
small
One big better than
several small in same
habitat
Closer is better than
spread out
Clustered is better than
linear
Having corridors is
better than not
Circular is better than
other shapes
Species losses in Western North
American National Parks
Grizzly Bear – Ursus arctos horribilus
Flag of California
Australian Conservation Networks
Alps to Atherton in east and Gondwana Link in southwest