Transcript FLL_CS1draft - Fisheries Conservation Foundation

Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar)
Atlantic Salmon (Salmo
salar)North
imperilment
in North Eastern
Imperilment
in the
Eastern
United
United States
States
Learning Module
prepared by: Andrew Gingerich
Natural Resources and Environmental Science, Illinois Natural History Survey and the
Department of Law at the University of Illinois
Champaign, IL
2008
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
Description of the Conservation Issue
2.
Background and History
3.
Science and Research
4.
Conflicts and Debate
5.
Relevant Legislation
6.
Legislative Effectiveness
7.
Resources
8.
References
9.
Glossary
10.
Appendix
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Summary
Atlantic Salmon (A.S.) are a fish species native to the Northeastern and Northwestern coasts of the Atlantic
Ocean. This Anadromous fish species spends 1–3 years in freshwater rivers before moving to sea, traveling to
the coast of Greenland and feeding for an additional 1–3 years. During this marine growth period, fish
become reproductively mature and return to native rivers to spawn. Most fish spawn and die, but some are
iteroparous, having the ability to “drop-back” or return to sea, before having another freshwater spawning
bout.
In Maine and much of the New England coast, the US Fish and Wildlife listed this species under the Endangered
Species Act due to significant decreases in returning salmon. Historically more than 500,000 fish returned to
these rivers. However, estimates over the last few years remain at a low of around 2000 fish. In Maine,
research has shown that a Distinct Population Segment (DPS) of fish exist, having novel life history traits.
These DPS fish are at critically low numbers in recent years, having only about 33 estimated fish return to 8
rivers in Maine (2002).
Many factors are thought to be responsible for this decline, including, but not limited to, dams, poor stocking
practices, air pollution, habitat degradation, invasive species introduction, and marine mortality. Stakeholders
have interest in restoring this species to New England. The Endangered Species Act, Clean Water Act,
Magnuson-Stevens Act and the Coastal Zone Management Act have relevant application and legislative
involvement in the Atlantic Salmon issue in the Northeastern United States.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Summary
Atlantic Salmon (A.S.) are a fish species native to the North Eastern and North Western coasts of the Atlantic
Ocean. This Anadromous fish species spends 1-3 years in freshwater rivers before moving to sea, traveling to
the coast of Greenland and feeding for an additional 1-3 years. During this marine growth period fish become
reproductively mature and return to native rivers to spawn. Most fish spawn and die but few are iteroparous,
having the ability to “drop-back” or return to sea, before having another freshwater spawning bout.
In Maine and much of the New England coast the US Fish and Wildlife listed this species under the endangered
species act due to significant decreases in returning salmon. Historically more than 500 000 fish returned to
these rivers. However, estimates over the last few years remain low around 2000 fish. In Maine, research has
shown that a distinct population segment (DPS) of fish exist, having novel life history traits. These DPS fish
are at critically low numbers in recent years having only about 33 estimated fish return to 8 rivers in Maine
(2002).
Many factors are thought to be responsible for their decline including, but not limited to dams, pour stocking
practices, air pollution, habitat degradation invasive species introduction, and marine mortality. Stake holders
have interest in restoring this species to New England. The ESA (endangered species act), Clean water act,
Magnuson-Stevens Act and the Coastal Zone Management have relevant application and legislative
involvement in the Atlantic salmon issue in the North Eastern United states.
What do these words mean? Throughout this module you might
find words that you do not understand. The glossary at the end of
the module can help explain these terms.
View Glossary
Now Please
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Description of the Conservation Issue
•
•
•
Atlantic Salmon have been declining all over their native range since the 1800s
and perhaps even before
Managers and stakeholders are interested in restoring many native populations
Much is know about their natural history, but little conclusive answers have been
given in how to stop the decline and restore populations
At left are two Atlantic salmon
spawning in a shallow water
stream. Notice the gavel substrate,
or bottom, on which they spawn.
This kind of habitat is crucial for
Atlantic Salmon spawning.
Photo credit: Fish Base
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Atlantic Salmon Historically in Maine
•
In the early 1800s, half a million
adult Atlantic Salmon were returning
to US rivers annually.
•
In 2001, the estimate was 1,050
returning fish.
• 780 (90%) of which returned to
only one river in Maine called the
Penobscot (#9 on the figure to the
right).
•
In 2002, 871 estimate returned).
•
In November 2000, US Fish
&Wildlife listed Atlantic Salmon as
endangered (ESA).
•
Returns in 2007 were estimated at
940 salmon; that number more than
doubled in 2008 with estimates at
2,000 salmon returns.
• Still, that’s less than 0.5% of the
original number of returning fish.
Legislative
Effectiveness
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Atlantic Salmon Declines in Maine
•
The Gulf of Maine Distinct Population
Segment (DPS) has declined to critically low
levels. More will be explained about DPS
fish throughout this learning module.
•
No DPS adults were documented in three of
the eight DPS rivers.
•
Despite fry stocking, smolt production
continues to drop: From 1996 through 1999,
annual smolt production in the Narraguagus
River was estimated to average about 3,000.
Smolt production declined significantly in
2000 and has averaged only about 1,500 fish
per year (half of the annual production from
1996 – 1999).
•
Since 1997, overwinter survival of juvenile
Atlantic Salmon in the Narraguagus River
has averaged only about 12%, approximately
half of the survival rate of previous years.
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Why Have Atlantic Salmon Declines Happened?
Atlantic Salmon declines happen because return and replacement rates are decreasing
Return rates of Atlantic Salmon to Maine’s
River (both DPS and other Atlantic
Salmon) and replacement rates for adult
salmon have been decreasing since 1967
and earlier. If adult salmon do not at least
replace themselves with one offspring, the
population declines. The figure below
shows a replacement rate of less than 1.0
between 1996 and 2002.
Introduction
History
Science
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Effectiveness
Atlantic Salmon Life History
Leave for the ocean
Return from the
Ocean mature
Introduction
History
Science
Juvenile Atlantic Salmon remain in
freshwater 1 – 3 years and develop as
parr. They feed primary on
macroinvertabrates or small aquatic
bugs.
Mature Atlantic Salmon spawn in the
fall. Eggs remain in substrate over winter
and hatch in the spring.
http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/sos/spsyn/af/salmon
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
At 10 – 13 cm, smoltification takes place
(5 inches). After this, smolts migrate to
the open ocean. An average of 50 % of
smolts die because of the physiological
stress associated with moving from fresh
to salt water.
Salmon migrate to Greenland, where they spend 1 – 3
years feeding and growing before returning in the fall
to spawn in the same location from which they
hatched. In Maine reproductive site fidelity is greater
the 98 %.
Introduction
History
Science
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Effectiveness
Atlantic Salmon Natural History
Females returning to spawn, after spending two winters at sea, will lay an average
of 7,500 eggs.
– About 15 – 35% will survive to the fry stage. (NOAA)
– About 1.25% of eggs make it to the smolt stage (90 smolts per female).
– Of smolts, there is a 50% mortality rate as they move from fresh to salt water.
Most spawning adults die after spawning,
but some are iteroparious (1 – 6%) and
drop back to sea, only to return to the
rivers and spawn again.
Photo Caption: Atlantic salmon migrating up
spawning rivers (Credit: National Geographic)
Introduction
History
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Effectiveness
Distinct Population Segment
The map below shows a part of Maine where the significant
population of Atlantic Salmon exists.
8 Rivers in Maine have fish in
them that make up a Distinct
Population Segment (DPS). In
2002, only 33 estimated
salmon returned to those
rivers.
What is a DPS?
A DPS is a group of animals
within a species that have
unique life history traits due to
novel genetics. Because of
these unique traits, they are
considered to be of great
importance for the genetic
conservation of a species.
Introduction
History
Science
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Effectiveness
Distinct Population Segment
The 8 rivers that the DPS
What Makes These Fish a Distinct Population Segment?
fish return to are Dennys,
Machias, east machias,
In 1999, scientists completed a status review and concluded that the
Pleasant, Narraguagus,
Gulf of Maine Distinct Population Segment (DPS) has unique life
Ducktrao, Cove Brook,
history characteristics that are heritable (i.e., can be passed on to
Sheepscot and are bolded
offspring).
in this diagram.
These life history features include timing of spawning runs and
growth rates. The National Research Council Committee on Atlantic
Salmon in Maine determined that the large genetic differences among
populations suggest biologically important genetic isolation has
occurred in these fish.
Furthermore, genetic differences among tributaries within large
watersheds are suggestive of local adaptations though evolutionary
processes.
Therefore, since the traits are novel relative to other global stock,
there is a necessity to conserve this Distinct Population Segment.
Introduction
History
Science
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Relevant
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Effectiveness
Why Are Atlantic Salmon Imperilled ?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Marine Mortality – High percentage of fish die at sea.
Dams – Adult and juvenile obstruction, water quality.
Hatcheries – No attention to genetics; not clear how invasive this is.
Aquaculture – Pens transmit disease; parasites concentrated.
Acid Deposition – Sulphates and other airborne chemicals led to the extirpation
of Atlantic Salmon in more the 12 rivers in Nova Scotia. Particularly bad in
young fish.
Fishing – By 2000, all harvest and C&R was stopped in Maine. By 2002,
commercial fishing almost complete eliminated at sea.
Changes in Atmospheric and Ocean Climate – Warming waters because of
warming climate (increased over the last 30 years in Maine).
Predation and Food Supply – Is natural but has gotten worse because of nonnative piscivorous fish. Plus human selection and protection has altered food
supplies and predation risk (i.e., Marie Mammal Protection Act).
Governance – Gap between government structure and Resource Management
knowledge, stakeholders, etc.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
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Legislative
Effectiveness
ISSUES: # 1 MARINE MORTALITY
•
One of the biggest conerns is the high rate or morality at sea. Understanding why
marine mortality occurs is challenging for a number or reasons:
–
Most return rate data does no distinguish between losses occurring shortly
after emigration to the sea and those occurring on the high seas.
- A lot can happen during 1 – 3 years
at sea.
- High seas fishing has been virtually
eliminated, thus no data is collected
by commercial fishing observers and
therefore the sex, size, location and
other indices are not determined at
sea.
-Mortality is likely due to water
temperature, food availability and
predation.
Introduction
History
Science
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Relevant
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Legislative
Effectiveness
ISSUES: # 2 DAMS
In the past, dams placed on Maine’s rivers for mills and other purposes caused
problems for the Atlantic Salmon. Juvenile salmon (smolts) would die as a result of
traveling through turbines within dams en route to sea. In addition, the dans
prevented passage of adults upstream to spawning locations.
Fish ways have improved these issues, but dams still create a number of problems
for salmon, including:
• Cormorants select foraging areas adjacent to
dams because of the higher availability of prey
than other parts of rivers. This is likely due to
delay and injury of migrating Atlantic Salmon
smolts.
• Striped bass, an Atlantic Salmon predator,
also congregate by dams waiting for confused,
injured and vulnerable AS smolts, which can
make up to 80% of a striped bass diet.
• Finally, dams can change the water
temperature and quality of downstream
Introduction
History
Science
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Effectiveness
ISSUES: # 3 & 4 HATCHERIES & AQUACULTURE
•
•
•
•
•
•
Stocking in Maine began in 1870, and the first young obtained were from lake
Ontario.
Still, wild salmon in Maine DPS rivers are
Because of the lack of concern for genetics, lots of genetic mixing of Canadian
genetically different from European and Canadian
Stocks and European Stocks occurred.
Atlantic salmon.
Between 1871 and 1886, about 24 million eggs were taken from wild Penobscot
sea-run salmon.
of these eggs were used to stock waters outside of the
More Most
specifically...
Distinct Population
Segment
area, stocks
includingare
in-land
lakes, to of
create or enhance
U.S. Atlantic
salmon
composed
landlockedpredominately
salmon populations.
adults that spend two winters at
In the 1920s
1930s,returning
Canadian stocks
used towhile
stock Atlantic Salmon in
seaand
before
(2SW were
) (> 80%),
Maine. generally Canadian and European stocks have a
Despite this
mixing
in 2002,
researchers
concluded
thatadults)
North American Atlantic
much
higher
grilse
(one winter
at sea
Salmon are
genetically distinct
from European
Atlantic Salmon.
component
and a lower
2SW component
(often
<50%).mixed
The proportion
of 2SW
in an Atlantic
Despite stocking
genotypes, Maine
stillfish
has Atlantic
Salmon that are distinct
salmon stock has a documented genetic basis.
from Canadian.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
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Legislative
Effectiveness
ISSUES: # 5 ACID DEPOSITION AND WATER POLLUTION
•
Smolt survival is affected by a restricted readiness time, sometimes referred to a
physiological “smolt window,” and the timing of seawater entry with environmental
conditions such as temperature, food, and predators, or an ecological
“environmental window.”
•
Smolt development is adversely affected by acidity, pollutants, and improper
rearing conditions, and unfortunately smolts are often more sensitive than they
would be at other life stages.
• Unfortunately, the migration
corridor of smolts are the most heavily
impacted by pollution and other
anthropogenic activities that may be
directly lethal or increase mortality by
delaying or inhibiting smolt migration.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
ISSUES: # 6 FISHING- COMMERCIAL AND RECREATIONAL
•
•
•
In the 1950s, it was discovered that salmon from rivers in
the US and Canada, as well as from Europe, gathered in
the sea around Greenland and the Faroe Islands. Because
of this, massive commercial fishing was established.
After an initial series of record annual catches, the
numbers crashed — between 1979 and 1990, catches fell
from four million to 700,000.
Until recently, the West Greenland fishery was one of the
last directed Atlantic Salmon fisheries in the Northwest
Atlantic. Commercial fishing for Atlantic Salmon within
Greenland territorial waters was suspended for five years
in 2002. However, some internal-use fishery continues.
The internal-use fishery is a mixed stock fishery, catching
both North American and European fish. Maine-origin
salmon, including endangered salmon, are taken in low
numbers. Based upon tag returns, the commercial
fisheries of Newfoundland and Labrador historically
intercepted far greater number of Maine-origin salmon
than the West Greenland fishery. However, concerns exist
about the potential of the West Greenland fishery to
harvest endangered U.S. salmon.
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
ISSUES: # 6 FISHING- COMMERCIAL AND RECREATIONAL CONT’D
•
It has been well established that even recreational fisheries, both catch-and-keep and
catch-and-release fishing, can be harmful to fish stocks.
•
Once these fish were listed to the ESA and declines were made apparent, recreational
fishing for Atlantic Salmon was discontinued in the Northeastern United States. Maine
recently opened a short period of catch-and-release fishing that is meant to be
experimental. See the guidelines below:
1.02 Size and Bag Limits
Fishing for anadromous Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) is prohibited statewide, except as provided in section
1.03. Any anadromous Atlantic salmon caught incidentally to other angling shall be released alive
immediately without removal from the water.
1.03 Experimental Open Season
1. Time Period
There will be a limited, experimental open season for directed angling for Atlantic salmon from May 1, 2008
to May 31, 2008 on the Penobscot River in the area specified below.
2. Open Area
Penobscot River; Between two painted red markers placed on opposing banks that are 150 feet below the
Veazie Dam fishway, down river to the former site of the Bangor Dam, which will also be marked by two
painted red markers. The open area does not include the pool below the former dam site.
3. Conditions Include
Catch -and-release only;no fish may be taken out of the water for any reason; and only fly fishing may be
used as a method of capture while using barbless hooks.
Introduction
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Relevant
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Effectiveness
ISSUES: # 7 CHANGES IN ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEAN CLIMATE
Research has shown that surface ocean water temperatures have an impact on the
quality and numbers of adult salmon returning to spawn in rivers. Specifically, sea
surface temperature distributions for periods of high versus low return rate showed:
•
•
When low sea surface temperatures dominate the North Sea and Southern coast of Norway
during the month of May, salmon survival decreases.
Conversely, when high sea surface temperatures extend northward along the Norwegian coast
during the month of May, survival is favorable.
It’sThese
unclearare
howrecently
Atlantichatched
Salmon
willsalmon,
be impacted
or have referred
been
sometimes
to
impacted
global
climate
change.
as eggbysac
fry or
egg sac
salmon.
However, streams in Maine have
They useincreased
their yolkwater
sacs as
significantly
food for about
a week
before
temperatures
over the
past few
they and
can this
feedis on
their own.
decades
considered
to be
troubling information for spawning
adult and young Atlantic Salmon.
Introduction
History
Science
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Relevant
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Legislative
Effectiveness
ISSUES: # 8 PREDATION
•
•
•
Community assemblages in Atlantic Salmon streams have changed in recent years.
Brown trout and largemouth, smallmouth and striped bass have been added to
Atlantic Salmon streams and rivers in the Northeastern US. All are piscivorous, or
eat other fish, including young Atlantic Salmon.
In addition, many of these species compete with Atlantic Salmon for resources or
eat their eggs.
Protection afforded to marine mammals and birds, predation on Atlantic Salmon is
likely higher than it was during higher return rates in the 1970s (e.g., Cormorants
are protected and significant predators of smolts).
The Brown trout (left) looks a little bit like an Atlantic Salmon (AS), but it is another fish species that
competes with Atlantics, in addition to eating AS offspring.
The
largemouth
bass (right )
is another
piscivorous
fish species
that was
introduced to
historical AS
streams
recently.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
ISSUES: # 9 GOVERNANCE
•
•
•
•
Often, economics and conservation do not match up.
With the Atlantic Salmon (AS) issue, many people are involved, including AS
farmers, anglers, commercial anglers, states, and perhaps even the conservation of
the fish species in general.
Each one of the above mention groups needs different things when it comes to AS.
For example, Atlantic Salmon in Maine need genetic diversity conservation, which
means eliminating hatchery and aquaculture escapees, while farmers of Atlantic
Salmon need increased efficiency in production and decreased operation costs.
Thus famers favor narrow genetics, or fish that put on weight and do well under
hatchery conditions, not necessary increased genetic diversity and strong genetic
traits that lead to high survival in the wild.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Conflicts and Debate
Conflict:
• Atlantic Salmon remains a popular fish for human consumption. It is
commonly sold fresh, canned, or frozen. However, these consumed fish come
from farming, which can have adverse effect on natural AS recovery.
• There is little debate regarding AS imperilment. Where the debate exists is if
the Distinct Population Segment (DPS) still exists or are they all stocked out
fish.
• Some anglers believe they should be able to capture and keep DPS fish because
they believe that these fish are no longer natural fish.
Stakeholders:
• Commercial Fisherman/Aquaculture — In 1998, the value of Maine aquaculture
products was estimated at nearly $70 million. Atlantic Salmon accounts for
over 90% of this value ($68 million). Employs over 1000 people. Issue: Fish
get out and eutrophication.
• Catch-and-release anglers
• Consumers
• States: Significant state revenue can be generated with healthy fish Atlantic
Salmon stocks due to commercial and recreational significance of this species.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Relevant Legislation in the United States
Costal Zone Management Act — In 2002 and 2003, Maine received 2.5 million
from the Federal government, which the state matched. This money helps to
develop riparian and shoreline habitat, but is not necessarily aimed directly at
Atlantic Salmon recovery.
Endangered Species Act — Section 9 of the Endangedred Species Act (ESA)
prohibits the take of the endangered Atlantic Salmon. The term “take” means to
“harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or
attempt to engage in any such conduct.”
Clean Water Act — This Act prohibits pollution that is generated by Atlantic
Salmon farming, but net pen farming violates the CWA and ESA current
regulations.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Relevant Legislation in the United States
The ESA not only protects Atlantic Salmon as a species, but
also critical habitat of the species. The ESA defines critical
habitat as:
(i) the specific areas within the geographical area occupied by the species, at the
time it is listed in accordance with the [Act], on which are found those physical or
biological features (I) essential to the conservation of the species and (II) which
may require special management considerations or protection; and (ii) specific
areas outside the geographical area occupied by the species at the time it is listed in
accordance with the provisions of section 1533 of this title, upon a determination by
the Secretary that such areas are essential for the conservation of the species.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Legislation (continued): Canada
•
•
•
•
In May 2001, Atlantic salmon populations in several rivers in the upper Bay of
Fundy were designated as endangered by the Canadian Committee on the Status of
Endangered Wildlife (COSEWIC).
The Species at Risk Act (SARA) was passed in October 2002. The Atlantic Salmon
Inner Bay of Fundy populations are protected under SARA. Canada: Inner Bay of
Fundy Atlantic Salmon runs were declared endangered in 2000.
A new Atlantic Salmon Policy is being developed, but as of 2008, no recovery plan
is in place.
Recreational fishing for Atlantic Salmon is not prohibited. For example, in the
province of Quebec, the daily catch limit for Atlantic salmon is one fish over 63
cm, two fish under 63 cm, or one fish over and one under 63 cm, provided that the
smaller fish was the first one caught (a provision designed to prevent an angler
from continuing to fish if a large fish is already in possession). The annual catch
limit is seven Atlantic Salmon of any size.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Legislation (continued): International Support
The North Atlantic Salmon
Conservation Organization
(NASCO) is an international
council made up of Canada,
Denmark, the European Union,
Iceland, Norway, the Russian
Federation, and the United
States, with its headquarters in
Edinburgh. It was established
in 1983 to help protect Atlantic
Salmon stocks.
More information about this organization can be found at NASCO ~ North Atlantic
Salmon Conservation Organisation. Simply click the link (you will need an internet
connection).
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Success?
•
Some are not convinced and think that the
federal government isn’t doing enough,
including
allowing
violate
In New England,
many
effortsaquaculture
are underway
tothe
restore Atlantic
definition
of harm down
throughobsolete
pollutiondams
and and updating
Salmon to theESA’s
region
by knocking
the CWA’s
of pollution.
others with fish
laddersdefinition
and other
contraptions that have proven
effective in the West with Pacific Salmon.
• from
There
been
some success thus far, with populations growing in
Excerpt
the has
article
at right:
the Penobscot River and the Connecticut River.
“net pen
facilities
in Maine
in
• In
Ontario,
theare
Atlantic
Salmon Restoration Program was started in
violation 2006,
of both the
Water
andFederal
it is one
of the largest freshwater conservation programs
Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act
in North America. It has stocked Lake Ontario with over 700,000
or CWA) and the Endangered Species
young Atlantic Salmon. In November 2007, a migrating salmon was
Act (ESA)... this Note argues that the
observed
in Federal
the Credit
River.[10] There has also been some success
recent, proposed
CWA
effluent
inbriefly
establishing
Atlantic
guidelines
set forth above
wouldsalmon in Fish Creek, a tributary of Oneida
inanCentral
New
serve notLake
only as
extremely
low York.
baseline for state regulation, but would
also contravene the purposes of the
CWA while stifling implementation of
the ESA as applied to the endangered,
wild Atlantic Salmon.”
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Conclusions
1.
Atlantic Salmon are an important species in Maine and all
over the North Atlantic Coast and Ocean.
2.
Recently they have been declining in numbers.
3.
There are a number of reasons responsible for these declines.
4.
Maine importantly has some genetically unique Atlantic
Salmon know as the DPS fish.
5.
The conservation of the DPS fish is important for maintaining
the genetic diversity of this fish species on a global scale.
6.
A number of relevant acts, laws and legislatures have been
designed to help strengthen Atlantic Salmon numbers
worldwide, specifically along the Northeastern coast of
Maine.
Legislative
Effectiveness
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
THE END OF THE LEARNING MODULE
• END of Learning Module
Relevant
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Legislative
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Introduction
History
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Relevant
Legislation
RESOURCES
Additional reading can be found in the following articles:
Simply put this title
in an Internet browser
search engine
(Google, Yahoo, etc.).
Theses documents
are free to the public.
Legislative
Effectiveness
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Atkins, C. G. (1874). On the salmon of eastern North America, and its artificial culture. P. 227-335 in United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries Report of the
Commissioner for 1872 and 1873, part II. Washington.
Baum, E. (1997). Maine Atlantic Salmon: A National Treasure. Atlantic Salmon Unlimited, Hermon, ME.
Blackwell, B.F. and F. Juanes. (1998). Predation on Atlantic Salmon Smolts by Striped Bass after Dam Passage. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 18:
936–939.
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Boschung, H.T. (1983). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Fishes, Whales & Dolphins. Chanticleer Press.
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salar L.) in the North Sea area. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57(2): 419-429 .
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Massachusetts.
Introduction
History
Science
Conflicts
Relevant
Legislation
Legislative
Effectiveness
Glossary
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Imperilment – Exposure to possible harm, loss, or injury.
Smoltification – A metamorphosis that takes place in freshwater juvenile salmon prior to them
leaving to saltwater environments.
Anadramous – Fish that breed in fresh water but live their adult life in the sea (salt water).
Iteroparity – Reproduction that occurs repeatedly over the life of the individual.
Distinct Population Segment (DPS) – A subgroup of a vertebrate species that is treated as a species
for purposes of listing under the Endangered Species Act.
Atlantic Salmon (AS) – An anadramous fish species found in the Northern Atlantic Ocean and
reproducing in freshwater rivers throughout Europe, Iceland, Russia, Canada and the United States.
Substrate – Refers to composition of the ground in a riverbed (for example, silt or gravel).
Spawning – Mating or reproduction in fish. Females release sticky eggs that adhere to the river bed
while males release sperm that fertilizes the eggs.
Macroinvertabrates – Small aquatic bug-like creatures. Salmon feed on specifically nymphs of May
flies, Caddis and Stones.
Physiological Stress – Internal stress that can include changes in heart rate, metabolism, and internal
salt concentrations. Prolonged exposure to this stress without correction by the fish can lead to
mortality.
Site Fidelity – The process of returning to the exact place of hatching to spawn. Salmon have a very
high site fidelity. In Maine this can be greater than 98 % of the time.
Piscivorous – Fish species that eat other fish.
Return To Introduction