Transcript Document

ANSSI TUULENMÄKI
Helsinki University of Technology
BIT Research Centre
Decode Group
[email protected], +358-50-3819772
Systeemiälykurssi s2004
MIKSI ASIAT TAPAHTUVAT? TEORIOIDEN
KEHITTÄMINEN SYSTEEMIÄLYN
PERSPEKTIIVISTÄ NÄHTYNÄ
GALILEO’S FINGER – THE TEN GREAT IDEAS OF SCIENCE ATKINS, PETER (2003); Oxford University Press.
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Evoluutioteoria
selittää miksi maailmassa on miljoonia erilaisia lajeja...
eli luonnon äärimmäisen monimutkainen systeemi voidaan pelkistää
yksinkertaiseen logiikkaan: variaatio, valinta ja säilyminen!
Kuinka Darwin tajusi systeemin?
--havainnoimalla systeemin ilmentymiä järjestelmällisesti
--saariolosuhteet pelkistivät systeemiä ja toivat lajien erot selvemmin esiin
--kirjaa lukemalla hän tajusi systeemin kaikkein olennaisimman piirteen:
olemassaolosta taistellaan, koska systeemissä on koko ajan liikaa toimijoita,
jotta kaikki uudet ja vanhat voisivat säilyä
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Input systeemiälykeskusteluun:
havainnoimme enemmän kuin huomaamme
(jaksamme prosessoida)
havainnoissa on enemmän potentiaalia kuin
yleensä oletamme
vaikka havainnoimme koko ajan havaitsemme
systeemejä (vaikutussuhteita) suhteellisen
harvoin
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Rakennusaineita havaintoihin: Selityksiä miksi muutosta tapahtuu...
FAMILY
Members
LIFE CYCLE
Developmentalism
Biogenesis
Ontogenesis
Stage theories
TELEOLOGY
Functionalism
Religions/ utopias
Goal/ planning models
Enactment theories
Rational choice
DIALECTIC
Conflict
Deconstruction
Pluralism
Bifurcation theories
Polyphonic themes
EVOLUTION
Darwinian evolution
Punctuated equilibrium
Saltationism
Gradualism
Lamarckian evolution
Pioneers
Nisbet, Piaget, Levinson
Weber, Parsons
Marx, Freud
Darwin, Gould, Campbell
Logic:
imminence,
prefigured program
continuity
- - >- -> - ->
envisioned end state
social construction
equifinality
- - >- -> - ->
contradictory forces thesis,
antithesis, synthesis
natural selection of organisms and
species
+
+
Var Sel Ret
TXA
-
(synthesis)
- -> - - - - ->
Event
unitary sequence of stages
moving to a progressive
differentation of entity
regulated by natural or
institutional laws.
Conditions:
programs/routines or rules
prescribed by nature, logic
or institutions
2004
multiple cumulative
sequence of planning,
implementation, and
adaptation of alternative
means to reach desired
end state.
purposeful, adaptive
interactive choice,
collective action and
learning.
recurrent convergence of
recurrent, cumulative & conjunctive
multiple divergent
sequence of variation, selection &
progression mediated by
retention events.
partisan struggle between
contradictory values or events.
pluralistic, diverse
contradictory, colliding
sequences of events or
values.
scarcity
commensalism
population dynamics
SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDYING STRATEGY PROCESS: A RESEARCH NOTE II (VAN DE VEN, ANDREW H [1992], SMJ
13, 169-188)
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What is this thing called energy?
...Euclids five axioms for the formation of geometry summarize the structure of
space, so through them we know where we are. Newton’s three laws summarize
motion in that space, so through them we know where we are going. In a slightly
simplified form they are as follows:
1)a body continues it state of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is subject to a force
(law of inertia).
2)the acceleration of the body is proportional to the force applied (force = [inertial] mass x
acceleration)
3)to every action there is always opposed an equal reaction.
...The third law is deeper than it looks. ...The real significance... is that it implies
a conservation law.
...conservation law is a consequence of the symmetry of space... space stays
exactly the same; everywhere it is smooth and unvarying. ...Newton’s third law is
telling us... that space is uniform wherever we go.
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Systeemiäly on tapahtumien vastavoimien,
edellytysten ja seurauksien näkemistä
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What is this thing called energy?
...work is done whenever an object is moved against an opposing force.
...Energy is capacity to do work. That in fact, is all that energy really is.
Even though an object is stationary, it may still possess energy by its virtue of its
position. .. As far as energy stored in matter is concerned, it is entirely composed
of just two forms of energy – kinetic energy (the capacity to do work by virtue of
motion) and potential energy (the capacity to do work by virtue of position).
Potential energy is potential because it can be converted into kinetic energy.
...terms like ”electrical energy”, ”chemical energy”, and ”nuclear energy” ...are
just handy shorthand terms for special and particular combinations of kinetic and
potential energy. For example, electrical energy is essentially the potential energy
of negatively charged electrons in the presence of positive charges.
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Systeemiäly on kykyä luoda ja muuttaa
käsitteitä
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What is this thing called energy?
..two great foundations of science are causality, the influence of one event on a
subsequent event, and energy. Causality is essentially the coherence and
consistency of the chain of commands that keeps the universe moving and
which we disentangle to achieve understanding; energy is ever watchful
quardian of propriety, ensuring that causality causes only legitimate actions.
As we shall see, energy is truly the currency of cosmic accountancy.
...Potential energy and kinetic energy are freely interconvertible. ..Also, total
energy, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies... is constant.
...Whereas the conservation of momemtum (linear, angular) stems from the
shape of the space, the conservation of energy stems from the shape of time.
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Heat had long been a mysterious phenomenon
..heat nor work is a form of energy: both are ways of transferring energy from one
location to another.
...Everything becomes clear when we consider events on molecular scale. ...Work is
the transfer of energy that stimulates uniform motion of atoms in the surroundings
(e.g. in piston).
.. the transfer of energy as heat is the transfer of energy that stimulates random
motion of atoms in surroundings. The random jiggling motion of atoms is called
thermal motion. It is not heat. Heat is the mode of transfer of energy. ..Heat, in fact,
is better regarded as a verb than a noun.
..This atomic distinction between work and heat had a major influence on the
development of civilization. It is quite easy to to extract energy as heat: the energy
just has to tumble out in radom jumble of atomic motion. As such, early humans
were soon able to achieve it. It is far more difficult to extract energy as work, for
the energy has to emerge as orderly atomic motion.
...energy is conserved both in the domain of dynamics, the motion of individual
bodies and the interconversion of kinetic and potential energy, and also in
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thermodynamics, the interconversion of heat and work.
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Systeemiäly on kykyä vähentää tai lisätä
käsitteitä tarpeen mukaan
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How much energy is there now?
There certainly seems to be a lot of energy: volcanoes and hurricanes, brilliance
of stars, all matter is a form of energy (through E = mc2)....masses of all the stars
in all galaxies.. we would get a huge total mass and therefore a huge total energy.
...There is another contribution to the energy, the gravitational attraction between
matter. Attraction lowers the energy of the interacting bodies, so the more there is
of it, the lower the energy. ..Because of its negative contribution, as we add in all
the gravitational interactions between the stars... our original huge total energy
gets whittled away.
Does it whittled away completely? It is beginning to look like it. We can judge
the net total energy of the universe by examining its rate of expansion...
The misleading impression that there is a lot of energy in the universe stems from
the fact that we see the visible signs of energy in one form but we ignore it in
another of its forms (gravitation). It is this differentation of energy that endows
the universe with its spectacular dynamism, not the total.
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Vaatii systeemiälyä ymmärtää milloin
kokonaisuuden ymmärtäminen ei tarkoita
kokonaisuuden ymmärtämistä
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Why anything happens at all?
Abstraction of a steam engine – more generally, a heat engine. There is a hot
source from which energy is withdrawn at a high temperature, a device for
converting heat into work (piston etc) and a cold sink into which ”waste” heat is
discarded.
...To appreciate Kelvin’s contibution, we can imagine standing in front of a typical
nineteenth-century steam engine. On casual inspection.. we would probably
conclude that the piston in its cylinder is the essential component... alternatively,
we might conclude that the hot reservoir is the crucial component... Kelvin,
however... the essential component of a steam engine is the cold sink – the
surroundings into which waste heat is discarded.
Hot source
..Albert Szent-Györgyi (1893-1986) expressed this
aspect of science particularly well, when he said that
scientific research consists of seeing what everyone else
has seen but thinking what no one else has thought.
Work
Heat
Cold sink
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Systeemit voivat toimia hyvin ilman, että
kukaan on koskaan ymmärtänyt systeemin
kaikkein olennaisinta puolta
Systeemin olennaisin osa voi olla jotain, jota
kukaan ei ole koskaan systeemiin rakentanut
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Why anything happens at all?
the energy of the universe is constant. ...However, just as two libraries may
contain the same number of books, one in order and the other as a random pile
...so energy has a qualitative face that affects its efficacy. The quality of stored
energy is measured by... the entropy. ..Entropy, loosely, is a measure of the
quality of energy in the sense the lower the entropy the higher the quality. ...The
energy of the world is constant; the entropy strives towards a maximum.
...We have to think in terms of the total entropy change, which means the total
entropy change of the object of interest and the rest of the universe.
..The statement that entropy never decreases in any natural change is the same as
saying that molecular order never increases on its own accord.
...Atoms in their random jiggling tend to migrate into new niches; the energy of
random jiggling is passed on as atoms jostle their neighbours.
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Why anything happens at all?
The thermodynamic analysis of the operation of a steam engine (or any
heat engine):
Energy leaves the hot source as heat and thereby reduces its entropy. Some of
that energy is converted into work, which has no effect on the entropy. The rest
of the energy is deposited into the cold sink, so generating a lot of entropy.
Provided the temperature of the cold sink is lower than that of the hot source,
the overall entropy will increase even if the energy discarded as heat is less than
that extracted from the hot source. The difference in energy extracted and
discarded can be extracted as work.
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Is matter continuous or discrete?
In other words, can the elements de divided ad infinitium into ever smaller pieces
or is it discrete, in which case cutting world bring us finally to the further
uncuttable, the atom?
We have seen the outer manifestations of change in the emergence of the
biosphere, and the inner mechanisms of that change in molecular basis of
genetics. We have seen what doesn’t change, energy, and we have seen why
things change, in terms of entropy. Now we examine the material basis of change
in greater detail, so making the transition from elephants to elements. What does
science expose the nature of matter, the stuff from which evertyrhing tangible is
made?
Greeks and chinese elements... fire, air, water, earth, metal... all this was quite
wrong, of course... But the formulation and elaboration of the concept that
complexity is fabricated from simplicity was a profoundly important
conceptual step, and this attitude still lies at the core of modern science.
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Systeemiäly on tietoista abstraktiotason
vaihtelua
riippumatta ilmiön monimutkaisuudesta,
koosta tai eri ilmenemismuodoista
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Kaikki materia on järjestäytynyt
systeemin mukaan
The number of protons in an atomic nucleus is called the atomic number of the
element, so the atomic number of hydrogen 1, helium 2 and so on.
...the periodicity of the elements, the realization that matter is not a random
collection of disjoint members, but families of members with similar chemical
characteristics and similar electronic structures.
...We now know about 110 elements, and there are no gaps in the bulk of the table.
... Periodic table summarizes the properties of the elements... density, diameters,
number and type of bonds etc.
The periodic table is mathematics made material. With two simple ideas – that
electrons organize themselves so as to achieve the lowest possible energy, and
that no more than two electrons can occupy any given orb – the pattern of
matter becomes understandable. Chemistry is at the heart of understanding
matter, and at the very heart of chemistry lies its currency of discourse, atoms.
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Maailma on systeemisempi kuin pystymme
ajattelemaan sen olevan
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In a certain refined sense, everything is symmetrical (even the most
unsymmetrical object we can examine looks the same when we open our eyes
after doing nothing to it)....We need to distinguish groups of symmetry operations
that leave one point of an object unchanged (point groups) from groups that
involve motion through space (space groups). All the symmetry operations of a
sphere, and those of a cube, leave the point at its centre in the same location as it
was initially.
Space groups... patterns that extend effectively for ever in one dimension are
called frieze patterns. ...Frieze is any horizontal decorated band with a motif that
is repeated regularly thoroughout its length... There are only five possible varietes
of frieze (motifs may be different of course).
...By taking colossal intellectual leap we can perhaps begin to accept that just as
symmetry limits the number of possible patterns in space, it may be the case that
the symmetry of spacetime – whatever that means – limits the number of types of
elementary particle that can exist. Symmetry limits.
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Kaikki havainnoissamme on
merkityksellistä (vrt symmetria)
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Group theory reveals an awesome truth: there are only seventeen varieties of
wallpaper pattern. We can be a little more precise. By a net we mean an array of
dots that represents the location of the the motif. The wallpaper pattern is a
combination of the motif and the net. ...Group theory shows that there are only
five types of net and seventeen combinations of net and motif.
In 3D, space-filling periodic designs corresponds to 230 space groups. ..There are
4783 space groups in 4D...
Atoms and molecules pack together to give one of the 230 possible
arrangements allowed by symmetry...
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The symmetry of a unit cell affects the mechanical, optical, and electrical
properties of solids. For instance, the rigidity of a metal depends on the presence of
slip planes, which are planes of atoms that can slip over each other when subjected
to stress, such as a hammer blow. ...it turns out that hexagonal form has only one set
of slip planes, whereas the cubic form has eight sets of slip planes in different
directions ...thus, metals with the hexagonal structure (e.g. zinc) are brittle, whereas
metals with the cubic structure (e.g. copper and iron) are mallable – they can be
bent, flattened... relatively easy.
Symmetry guides... it is the source of laws.
..Noether’s theorem: where there is symmetry, there is always corresponding
conservation law. ...if two arrangements (of particles) are related by a symmetry
operation, then the energy of those two arrangements is the same. ...
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YKSI voima?
Scientists believe there is only one force acting in the universe but that this force
manifests itself in five different ways. Three of these manifestations electrical, magnetic, and gravitational – are familiar to us from everyday life. The
two others – the weak and strong forces – are totally unfamiliar.
...C.Maxwell.. electric and magnetic forces are best thought of as the two faces of
a single electromagnetic force. ..M.Faraday introduced the concept of field into
physics as the region of influence of a force. Broadly speaking, the electrical
force acts between all charged particles and the magnetic force acts between
charged particles in motion.
One of the hugely important fruits of this unification of two previously disparate
forces was elucidation of the nature of light: it was electromagnetic radiation.
This realization was confirmed in 1888 when H. Hertz produced and detected
radio waves. A second, intellectual fruit was the theory of relatively... A third
fruit... concept of the photon – a packet of electromagnetic energy by Einstein in
1905. First of messenger particles... that carry a force between the originating
and responding particles.
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...Cube analogy: the electroweak force is like the cube, the electromagnetic force
is like seeing a square in one orientation of the cube, and the weak force is like
seeing a hexagon when the cube is rotated into a different orientation.
Most of the human population is right-handed. No one really knows why (it may
be connected with the heart being slightly on the left of the body).
...Universe is not perfectly symmetrical... it turns out that the universe is
symmetrical (as far as we know) if simultaneously we change particles for
antiparticles (C), reflect the universe in a mirror (P), and reverse the direction of
time (T). That is, according to a theorem proposed by W.Pauli, the universe is CPT
invariant. So the universe is lop-sided under individual changes, but perfectly
formed if we think in terms of this composite action.
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Vaatii systeemiälyä huomata kuinka
hyvin erilaisilta näyttävissä asioissa voi
olla kyse samoista vaikutussuhteista.
Vaatii systeemiälyä huomata kuinka
samalta näyttävissä asioissa voi olla
kysymys hyvin erilaisista asioista.
Yksi voima voi näyttäytyä eri
systeemeissä samalla lailla ja kuitenkin
yhden systeemin eri osissa eri lailla
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QUANTA – waves behave like particles and
particles behave like waves.
Wavelength... frequency... electromagnetic spectrum (gamma rays, x-rays,
ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves, radiowaves).
..M.Planck 14 Dec 1900... official birthday of quantum theory. ..He proposed that
the energy of each oscillator could be changed only in discrete steps, a staircase of
energy rather than a ramp. ..A stepwise variation of energy – its quantization – is
now an established fact.
...Principle of stationary time: the time to traverse the path may be either a minimum
or, as in certain cases, a maximum. ...Light tries all paths, but only paths very close
to the path of least time do not eliminate each other. Destructive and constructive
interference become much more stringent the shorter the wavelength of the light,
and only geometrically straight lines survive in the limit of infinitely short
wavelengths, which is the limit at which physical (wave) optics becomes
geometrical optics. Total freedom of action has resulted in an apparent rule.
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By examining this analogy, De Broglie was able to deduce an expression for the
wavelenghts of his matter waves: wavelength = h/ momentum,
where h is Planck’s constant and the momentum of a particle is the product of its
mass and velocity.
Notice that the mass appears in the denominator... so large masses (balls, people,
planets) can be expected to have exceedingly short wavelengths. Your motion
can be treated according to Newton’s dynamics and you can travel with little fear
of being diffracted. It is hardly surprising that the waves with wavelenghts so
short went unnoticed and that Newtonian dynamics was so successful when
applied to visible, macroscopic bodies. When electrons are considered we enter
different world, for they are so light that their momenta are low and their
wavelengths correspondingly long. Electrons are the lightest of the common
particles.. but there is no particle or collection of particles (incl balls, people,
planets) that in principle does not have a wave character associated with it.
..An orbital is a special case of a wavefunction...
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Tiedämme ettemme voi tietää täysin tarkasti
..Heisenberg set to show that.. there are limitations on the knowledge that we can
have about a particle. For instance, if we want to measure the location of a
particle with a microscope, then we have to use at least one photon to observe the
particle, and the more precise the location we require, the shorter the wavelenght
of the photon that we must use.
Broadly speaking, we can’t pinpoint anything more precisely than the
wavelenght of the radiation we are using to locate it; so with visible light, we
can’t pinpoint anything less than about 5 ten-thousandths of a millimetre. Sound –
with wavelenghts close to 1 m, doesn’t let us locate the source with greater
precision than about 1 m, which is why bats have to use very high frequency,
short wavelenght sounds for their echo location.
There is a price to pay for using short wavelenght electromagnetic radiation to
locate a particle. When a photon strikes a particle, it imparts some of its
momentum to it. ..Thus, as we sharpen our knowledge about the position of
the particle, we blur our knowledge of its momentum. ..Because we cannot
know the position and momentum simultaneuosly, we cannot be confident that
each term is exactly... Position x momentum – momentum x position = h.
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