Transcript chapt11_lecture Getis 13e(1)

Introduction to
Geography
Arthur Getis, Judith Getis, &
Jerome D. Fellmann
Urban Geography
Chapter 11
Overview






An Urbanizing World
Origins and Evolution of Cities
Functions of Cities
Systems of Cities
Inside the City
Global Urban Diversity
An Urbanizing World

Rapid growth of cities




2008 – 19 megacities
Industrialization fosters urbanization


1800: 3% of world’s population lived in cities
Now: ≈ 50% of world’s population lives in cities
The most industrialized regions are the most urbanized
Urbanization in developing countries only partly
due to industrialization

People from rural areas seeking a better life
 Economic system often unable to support rapid
urban growth
Origins and Evolution of Cities

Origins of towns lie in several factors:





Existence of a settled community
A concentration of people
Groups not directly engaged in agriculture
Existence and governance of an elite group
These factors are the basis for urban
settlement and the underpinnings of civilization
Origins and Evolution of Cities

Requisites for urban development in the
ancient world




Agricultural surplus
 Food provided by hinterland surrounding the city
Social organization and power
Defensible location
Development of a more complex economy
Origins and Evolution of Cities
Defining the City Today

U.S. Census Bureau definition of urban places


City and town



2500 or more inhabitants
Multifunctional nucleated settlements
 Central business district, both residential and
nonresidential land uses
Towns are smaller, less functional complexity
Suburb

Functionally specialized segment of a large urban
area outside the central city
Origins and Evolution of Cities
Defining the City Today

Central city


Urbanized area


Part of the urban area contained within the suburban
ring, it usually has official boundaries
Continuously built-up landscape defined by building
and population densities with no reference to political
boundaries
Metropolitan area


Large-scale functional entity discontinuously built-up
but operating as an economic whole
May contain multiple urbanized areas
Origins and Evolution of Cities
Location of Urban Settlements

Site



Latitude and longitude or physical characteristics
Classification of cities according to site characteristics:
 Break-of-bulk locations
 Head-of-navigation/bay head
 Railheads
Situation

In relation to the physical and cultural characteristics
of surrounding areas
 Raw materials, market areas, agricultural regions,
mountains, oceans, etc.
Origins and Evolution of Cities
The Economic Base

Activities people do to support the urban population




Basic sector
 Bring money in from outside the community
Nonbasic sector
 Supply residents with goods and services
Total economic structure of an urban area equals the
sum of its basic and nonbasic activities
Functional specialization permits the classification of
cities into categories:
 Manufacturing, retailing, wholesaling, transportation,
government, etc.
Origins and Evolution of Cities
The Economic Base

Economic growth has a multiplier effect


As a city adds basic sector employment, it will acquire
people filling both basic and nonbasic sector positions,
in addition to their dependents, fueling population
growth
Size of effect determined by basic/nonbasic ratio
Functions of Cities

Urban settlements exist for the efficient
performance of three main functions:




Central place functions
Transport functions
Special functions
All towns provide the first two functions, but not
necessarily the third.
Functions of Cities

Cities as central markets


Central Place Theory – Walter Christaller
 Developed to explain the size and distribution of
settlements based on their roles as marketplaces
Urban influence zones
 Areas outside a city that are affected by it
 Usually proportional to size of city
 Urban influence is affected by distance decay
Functions of Cities

Cities as centers of production and services



Urban growth, particularly in the last 200 years, has
been tied to the development of industries
Growth of cities may be self-generating – “circular and
cumulative” due to attraction of service activities
Just as settlements grow in size and complexity, so do
they decline
 When demand for goods and services of an urban
unit fall, fewer workers are needed and thus both
the basic and nonbasic components of a settlement
system are affected
 However, resistance to decline impedes process
and delays its impact
Functions of Cities

Cities as centers of administration and
institutions


Size of government sector of employment usually
proportional to population size
Exceptions:
 State capitals
 Cities with large public universities
Systems of Cities


Cities today are interdependent
Urban hierarchy




Ranking based on size and functional complexity
Structured like a pyramid
All centers at all levels in the hierarchy constitute an
urban system
Rank-size rule to describe urban system



nth largest city of a national system of cities will be 1/n
the size of the largest city
No national urban system exactly meets this
requirement
Russia and U.S. closely approximate it
Systems of Cities

Primate city


Rank size rule is less applicable to countries with
developing economies and those in which the urban
system is dominated by a primate city
Much larger and functionally more complex than any
other city in the country
 E.g., Seoul, Bangkok
Systems of Cities

World cities



Stand at top of national systems of cities
Interconnected, internationally dominant centers of
global finance and commerce
London, New York, Tokyo are the dominant world
cities
Inside the City
Patterns of Land Use



Urban areas have distinct physical and cultural
landscapes
Following discussion is based on U.S. cities
Central Business District (CBD)



Center of an urban unit, where retail stores, offices,
and cultural activities are concentrated
High accessibility (mass transit, central roads)
High land values (high density utilization)
Inside the City
Patterns of Land Use

Outside the CBD



Land value and population density decrease as
distance from the CBD increases
Two separate but related distance-decay patterns for
land value:
 Sharp drop a short distance from the peak land
value intersection
 Value then declines less steeply to margins of builtup area
Population density pattern shows comparable
distance-decay arrangement
Inside the City
Patterns of Land Use

Models of urban form


Concentric zone model
 Developed by Ernest Burgess in 1920s
 Five zones as a series of rings around a core CBD
 Dynamic model
Sector model
 Developed in 1930s
 Sectors radiating outward from CBD along
transportation corridors
 Dynamic model
Inside the City
Patterns of Land Use

Models of urban form

Multiple-nuclei model
 Counters central assumption of concentric zone and
sector models that urban growth and development
spread outward from a single central core
 Peripheral spread from several specialized nodes of
growth
 Peripheral expansion of separate nuclei leads to
coalescence
Inside the City
Patterns of Land Use

Models of urban form


Peripheral model
 Takes into account major changes in urban form
since World War II, especially suburbanization
 Supplements three earlier models
 Describes land uses in peripheral belt around a city
 Circumferential highway outside city center
 Nodes on the peripheral belt are centers for
employment or services
New polycentric metropolis
Inside the City
Changes in Urban Form

Technological, physical, institutional structure
fostered change in the 20th century





Automobile
 Freed owner from fixed-route public transit
40-hour work-week
 Time available for commuting
Increased home ownership
 Changes in home loan terms (FHA, VA)
Interstate highway system
 Commuting long distances became more feasible
Vast areas of nonurban land developed
Inside the City
Suburbanization



Residential development came first, followed by
shopping, then industries and service activities
Populations drawn away from the central core
Suburbs became collectively self-sufficient


Edge cities
 Large nodes of office and retail activity at the margin
of an urban area
Megalopolis

Continuous functionally urban corridor from Boston to
Washington, D.C.
Inside the City
Decline of the Central City


Central city increasingly viewed as congested
and relatively inaccessible
Many jobs and prosperous residents moved
from the central city to the urban periphery,
leaving poorer, older, least –advantaged
urbanites behind



Loss of tax bases = inadequate social services
Limited job opportunities
Spatial mismatch
Inside the City
Decline of the Central City

Government urban renewal programs




Starting with Housing Act of 1949
Governmental battle to revive the central city is
frequently judged to be a losing one
Poverty and homelessness
Cities in the western U.S.


Rapid growth and sprawling physical expansion
Similar inner city problems
Inside the City – Downtown
Renewal and Gentrification

Significant economic growth in large urban
areas during 1990s


Provide first-rate telecommunications and fiber optics
infrastructures and the access to skilled workers,
customers, investors, and research, educational and
cultural institutions needed by the postindustrial
economy
Immigration to U.S. concentrated in gateway
cities between 1980 and 2000


Revitalization of inner cities
Important additions to urban labor force
Inside the City – Downtown
Renewal and Gentrification

Gentrification



Rehabilitation of housing in deteriorated inner-city
areas by middle- and high-income groups
 Young professionals and “empty nesters” returning
to urban centers
 Displacement of low-income populations
Local, state or federal governments foster revival by
investing in slum clearance, park development,
cultural center construction, sports facilities, etc.
May produce tensions between long-time residents
and newcomers
Inside the City – Downtown
Renewal and Gentrification

Fiscal problems due to unrestricted expansion

Growth boundaries and “smart growth”
Inside the City
Social Areas of Cities

City residents tend to segregate themselves



Especially in larger, more complex cities
Many groupings fostered by size and value of
available housing
Groupings according to:

Family status
 E.g., As distance from the city center increases, the
average age of head of household declines or the
size of the family increases or both.
 Concentric-circle patterning
Inside the City
Social Areas of Cities

Groupings according to:

Social status
 Determined by income, education, occupation and
home value
 Housing indicator of social status: people per room
 Sector model patterning
Inside the City
Social Areas of Cities

Groupings according to:

Ethnicity
 For some groups, ethnicity is a more important
residential location determinant that social or family
status
 Self-maintained segregation in ethnic
neighborhoods
 Certain ethnic or racial groups have been
segregated in nuclear communities
Inside the City
Institutional Controls


Institutional and governmental controls have
strongly influenced land use arrangements and
growth patterns of most cities in the world
Nonmarket governmental controls on land use



Land use plans, subdivision regulations, zoning
ordinances
Building, health, and safety codes
Goals of nonmarket controls:



Minimize incompatibilities
Appropriate locations for public and private uses
Preclude emergence of slums
Inside the City
Institutional Controls

U.S.


Asia



Zoning ordinances and subdivision regulations have
been used to exclude “undesirable” uses
No zoning in most of Asia
Common to have small-scale industrial activities
operating in residential areas
Europe and Japan

Common to have a wide variety of building types from
various eras on the same street
Global Urban Diversity

Structure, form and functions of cities differ
between regions, reflecting diverse heritages and
economies

Models of the U.S. city do not generally apply to
cities in other parts of the world
Global Urban Diversity
Western European Cities



Compact, high density
Most residents are apartment dwellers
Distinct historical features




E.g., irregular system of narrow streets from medieval
times
Pedestrian oriented
Lower skyline
Well-developed public transportation system
Global Urban Diversity
Western European Cities


Also affected by processes of decentralization
Grouping of industrial developments and
working-class homes in suburban areas outside
the city core


Housing for immigrants
Have been neglected and suffer decline
Global Urban Diversity
Eastern European Cities


Share traditions and practices of Western
European cities
But reflect communist planning principles




Limit city size
Ensure an internal structure of neighborhood equality
and self-sufficiency
Segregate land uses
Planned communist city fully achieved none of
these objectives, but by attempting them it has
emerged as a distinctive urban form
Global Urban Diversity
Eastern European Cities

Planned communist city fully achieved none of
these objectives, but by attempting them it has
emerged as a distinctive urban form (continued)






Compact, high density
Nearly universal apartment dwelling
Sharp break between urban and rural land uses
Largely dependent on public transportation
Central area for public use
Microdistricts
 Uniform apartment blocks housing thousands of people
 Centrally sited schools, stores, clinics, amenities
Global Urban Diversity – Rapidly
Growing Cities in the Developing World

Fastest-growing cities and fastest-growing urban
populations are found in the developing world

Modern technologies in transportation and public
facilities are sparsely available

Structures of cities and cultures of inhabitants
are far different from urban world familiar to
North Americans
Global Urban Diversity – Rapidly
Growing Cities in the Developing World

Backgrounds, histories and current economies
and administrations vary so greatly that it is
impossible to generalize about their internal
structure

However, some features are common to most of
them
Global Urban Diversity – Rapidly
Growing Cities in the Developing World

Colonial and noncolonial antecedents


Many cities established by Europeans as ports or
outposts of administration and exploitation
Cities with different roles have different physical
layouts:
 Religious center
 Market center
 Cultural capital
 Industrial or mining center
Global Urban Diversity – Rapidly
Growing Cities in the Developing World

Urban primacy and rapid growth



Disproportionate population concentrations in national
and regional capitals
 Primate city dominates urban system
Many cities have vibrant and modern city center
Yet, most cities cannot keep pace with growth
 Lack of access to water, sewage, telephone
 Traffic and air pollution problems
Global Urban Diversity – Rapidly
Growing Cities in the Developing World

Squatter settlements



Growth of cities spurred by rural-to-urban migration of
low-income residents seeking jobs
Large numbers of people work in the “informal” sector
Many new urbanites must live in shantytowns and
squatter settlements on fringes of the city
 Isolated from sanitary facilities and public utilities
 Isolated from jobs in city center
Global Urban Diversity – Rapidly
Growing Cities in the Developing World

Squatter settlements (continued)





Informal housing ignores building codes, zoning
restrictions, property rights and infrastructure standards
Threat of disease
Danger from landslides, fire and flooding
Occupants lack ownership of shelters and land
Squatter districts exist around most major cities in
Africa, Asia and Latin America
Global Urban Diversity – Rapidly
Growing Cities in the Developing World

Planned cities

Some capital cities have relocated outside the core
 For centrality, more uniform national development
 Islamabad, Ankara, Brasίlia, Abuja

Some developing countries have created or are
currently building new cities to draw population away
from overgrown metropolises and/or to house
industrial or transport centers