Transcript Document

Part four: Application of Physical Geography
—Method、principles and scheme
Chapter 14 Evaluation and zoning of the Earth’s Surface
Environment
Chapter 15 Prediction of the Earth’s Surface Environment
Chapter 16 Planning and Management of the Earth’s Surface
Chapter 17 Adjustment of the Earth’s Surface System
Chapter 14 Evaluation and zoning of the
Earth’s Surface Environment
Climate classification and evaluation of climate environment
Regionalization and evaluation of biological environment
Evaluation and zoning of topography, landform and geological environment
Distribution and evaluation of water resources
Land classification，land gradation and land evaluation
Integrated physicogeographical regionalization
KÖppen climate system and major climate belts and climatic types
A、C、D、E are wet climate，B is dry climate，H is highland climate。
Each climate is defined according to assigned values of
temperature,precipitation and distribution of nature
vegetable,Using f、m、w et al behind the first letter. Af for
example shows tropical rainforest climate。Based on climate types,
Each vice-climatic type is made off according to variables of
temperature，using the third letter a、b、c、d et al. Cfa for
example
is humid Climatic
subtropical。
Climatic patterns
patterns
climate belts
climate belts
Tropical climates
Humid mesothermal
climates
Tropical rainforest climate
Tropical monsoon climate
Tropical savanna climate
Mediterranean climate
Dry winter subtropical
polar
Icecap
dry Climates
Subtropical monsoon
Steppe
Desert
Arid humid climate with no dry season
Humid microthermal Humid subtropical
climates
Tundra
highlands
symbol and signification under the Köppen system
First letter
A Tropical climates
Coolest month above 18 º
C Mild humid climates
More than one month above
10ºc
D Snowy-forest climates
More than one month above
10ºc , coldest month below 0º
Second letter
f Constantly moist,driest month
with at least 6 cm of precipitation
m one dry season and excessively
wet during rain season
w less rain in winter, much in
summer
Third letter
s summer drought
w less rain in winter, much in
summer
f sufficient precipitation in all
month, driest month with at least 3
cm of precipitation
s mean temperature of the warmest above
22 ºc
b warmest month under 22ºc, four
months over 10ºc
c warmest month under 22ºc, one to
three months above 10ºc
d coldest month mean below 38ºc
E polar Warmest month below
10ºc
t warmest month between 10 º and
0º
f warmest month below 0 º c
B Dry climates Precipitation
less than half potential
evaporation
s semiarid
w dry
H Highlan
h mean temperature above 18 ºc
k mean temperature under 18 ºc
Global six climatic belts（ KÖppen climatic systems ）
Based primarily on temperature and precipitation ,using
vegetation patterns as a general indicator, W.Köppen, Germanic
climatology established Köppen climatic system.It also dependson
experience.However, such a classification system is yet to be
development,and now it is widely accepted.
The earth’s climates are viewed under the Köppen system as within
global climates of six major climate belts labeled A,B,C,D,E and H
as the first letter.
Climatic types（considering Desheng Liu）
Wet equatorial climate
Wet-dry tropical climate
Tropical maritime climate
Tropical arid-semiarid climate
Tropical monsoon climate
Subtropical dry climate in summer
Moist subtropical climate
Subtropical monsoon climate
Subtropical continental arid-semiarid climate
Temperature maritime climate
Sub-frigid continental climate
Temperature moist continental climate
Pole long-cold climate
Temperature monsoon climate
Pole ice-field climate
Temperature continental
Highland climate
arid-semiarid climate
Impact of climate on human
 Direct impact of master meteorological elements on human physiology：oxygen：
Human being can suffer from oxygenous pressure reducing 20%. Generally speaking,
people will have alpine reaction at an altitude of 2000 m; temperature：Generally human
body only stand ±4oC variety inside the body. If temperature was under 32oC ,people
would lose consciousness. If temperature was over 41oC circle system of human body is
likely to breakdown. Hot-wet synthetic influence : temperature between 20 and 24oC，
humidity between 40% and 60% are most comfortable to people。
 Indirect impact of master meteorological elements on human physiology （In different
climatic areas and different seasons，there were different typical diseases，and incidence
of a disease is unlikeness。Incidence of rheumatism and arthritic is four times in coldhumid area than in dry-hot area）
 Climate and meteorological disaster（In different climatic areas, there were different
climate and meteorological disasters，which had an impact on human life and produce）
Sense classification of human towards
temperature and humidity
Temperature between 20 and 24oC，humidity between 40% and 60%
are most comfortable to people. When environment was torridity
and wateriness ，people would feel uncomfortable. index THI
denotes combination of temperature and humidity.
sense
Most people feel comfortable
At least half people feel uncomfortable
Nearly all people feel uncomfortable
Evaluation index of biological environment
Evaluation index of biological environment
1、biodiversity
2、net primary productivity
：
Biological function in the forming of earth’s surface
environment
Changing components
of atmosphere and
hydrosphere
Attaching to the
movement of
earth’s chemistry
elementary
Biological function in
the forming of earth’s
surface environment
Participating in petrous
effloresce and edaphic forming
Participating
in
construct of rock and
nonmetallic mineral
Net primary productivity of Global continent
（Huggett,1998)
From net primary productivity of Global continent and ocean,we can easily
see ， land’s net primary productivity is higher than oceanic， shallow
sea’s alongshore higher than widen ocean，forest’s higher than
grassland’s，swamp’s higher than river’s and lake’s,grassland’s higher
than desert’s ,and so on.
dm2 refers to dry substance
Global land community (Mackenzie，1998)
Tundra
Temperature north coniferous forest
Temperature coniferous forest
Temperature deciduous forest
Grassland
Desert
Savanna/ woodland
Tropical rainforest
Mediterranean vegetation
Highland vegetation
Tropical deciduous forest
Classified evaluation of biological environment
Classified evaluation of biological environment
lever
net primary
productivity
(g/m2 /a)
biology species
evaluation of
biological
environment
District or community
1
highest（>800）
most abundance
best
Humid tropic, intertropicarea and mid- latitude forest areas，
fresh swamp，nearshore areas developing reef and alga，
many estuary areas
2
higher（600-800）
More abundance
better
Monsoon and trade-wind coastal areas，wet-dry tropical
areas（southeast asia）
，some estuary areas
3
high（400-600）
abundance
good
wet-dry tropical areas（southeast asia）
，moist subtropical
areas，part continental shelfs
4
middling（200-400）
common
normal
Mediterranean climatic areas、moist continential areas，
many continental shelfs
5
lowness（100-200）
monotony
bad
Dry and semiarid tropical and mid-latitude areas，widen
ecean areas
6
lower（0-100）
More monotony
worse
hungriness、tundra、neve，some oceanic areas
Evaluation and regionalization of Topography、relief and
geological environment
evaluating processes of terrain, relief and geologic environment
height above sea level：The higher of height above sea level, the
littler of biologic production, population and economic consistency.
surface constitute：from the height of surface compositive content
of element，evaluating elemental geochemistry environment，elemental
geochemical environment carves up good, common and bad.
geological hazards：as the example earthquake, volcano, coast,
landslip, and so on ， severely threaten human living and procreative
conditions。
terrain undulation ： the more surface relief is ， the more
discommodiousness human living is. According surface relief，suitability
was divided into：suitability less than 100 m，common between 100 and
500 m，unsuitability between 500 and 1000 m，very unsuitability above
1000 m.
morphologic sections：different sections have different conditions.
influencing classification of altitude impacting on human living
From current status，not only productivities，hut also population density，
will minish with altitude increasing. So we can say that，under the current
conditions of science and technology and economy，to many people，high altitude
is not suitability to people’s life and residence. If want to classify altitude,
you can reference the classified standard of mountain and knap.
Classification of suitability to people living according to altitude（Wang jian，2000）
altitude (m)
classification
amenity
unsuitability to many people
litter suitability
common
suitability
the best
constitution of surface elements and human geochemical
environment （ Jian Wang，2000）
There are a lot of elements in the earth’s surface. According to the
relationship between elements and human body、biology ，they are
separate into necessary elements,unnecessary elements and
poisonous elements. Because in different place there are various
elements ，elements distribute imbalance in different areas, and
impact on people’s health. If evaluating surface substantial
composing in some place in regard to advantages or disadvantages，
seemliness and unseemliness of human circumstance，you should
think of elementary content and advantages and disadvantages.
Content of necessary elements
absorbed by human body
moderate
moderate
less or more
less or more
content of poisonous elements
absorbed by human of biology
element geochemical
environment of human
nothing
good
existence
normal
nothing
normal
existence
bad
classification and impact on human life of
terrain undulation
Surface undulation have an important effect on human living and
production. To most people，life more facilitate in plain than in rugged
areas。Using standard margin of altitude，in a certain extent can show the
degree of surface undulation，it can be named relief。According to relief，
you can evaluate environmental amenity.
Surface relief and suitability of human life（Wang jian，2000）
Surface relief (m)
classification
suitability
amenity
normal
unsuitability
very unsuitability
Characters of Chinese landform、relief and geological environment
Three ladders；Chinese terrain is high in the west and low in the
east，and lowers along Tibetan plateau .
Three across three vertical and a arc characteristic of mountain
system—framework of Chinese surface structure
four plateaus、four basins and three plains
four plateaus：Tibetan plateau、inner Mongulian Plateau、Loess plateau and
Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau；
four basins：Tarim Basin、Juaggar Basin、Chaidamu basin 、Sichuan basin；
three plains：Northeast plain、the north china plain and the middle and lower
Valley of Yangtze River
Three ladders
China’s terrain is high in the west
but low in the east sloping from Tibetan
Plateau toward east. Three ladders are
the true portray of China’s terrain.
Tibetan Plateau lies on the first ladder
which is also the highest ladder, with
the average elevation between 4,000
meters and 5,000 meters. The north and
east of it are surrounded by a series of
basins and plateaus, with the average
elevation between 1,000 meters and
2,000 meters. The eastern part of line of
Daxing’ anling Mountain-Taihang
Mountain-Wushan Mountain-Xuefeng
Mountain is the third ladder of China.
500 meters above sea level, it is mainly
composed of low mountains, hills and
plains. As a result, most of rivers of
China flow from west to east, such as
Yangtze River、Huanghe River、Pearl
River、Huai River、Haihe River and so
on.
The first ladder
The second ladder
The third ladder
The Characteristics and Spatial
Distributions of Water Resource
The characteristic of
complex change
The characteristic
of circulate supply
The characteristic
of indispensable
The characteristics
of water resource
The characteristic of
being used comprehensively
The characteristic
of duality
Spatial distributions of water resource
The total volume of water on the earth is about 1.36×1010 km3. But most
of it is ocean water which covers 97.22 percent of the total and fresh water
only accounts for 2.78 percent of the total. Furthermore, ice accounts for 77.14
percent of fresh water and the volume of river water that can be utilized
directly by human beings is 1，250 km3 accounting for 0.003 percent of the
total. As far as fresh water that can be utilized by human beings is concerned,
the volume per capita is 5×106 litre which can meet the need of human beings.
But the problem is not that there is not enough water but that water resources
distribute unevenly. As a result, there is crisis of water in some places but flood
in other places. More seriously, in some places, there are duality crises
unfortunately.
Evaluation on Water Resource
Evaluation on water resource
refers to the comprehensive
evaluation on the quantity,
quality, space-time distribution
of water resource in a area.
Making a scientific evaluation on
the water resource is the precise
of exploiting and utilizing water
resource reasonably and is also
the
scientific
basis
of
programming, regulating and
protecting water resource.
Principle of investing,
exploiting and regulating
water resource harmonically
Source and distribution
Change
Contents of
Evaluation on
water resource
Provision
and supply
Water quality
Principle of taking the quantity
and quality of water resource
into account at the same time
Principles of
evaluation on
water resource
Principle of exploiting
and utilizing water
resource synthetically
Principle of mutual transformation
between surface water, ground
water and atmosphere water
Formation of the Hydrosphere
Each kind of water body interrelates with each other through water cycle so as to
form a whole hydrosphere. In a broad sense, all the water that is useful for human
beings directly or indirectly can be included in water resource. As far as capacity of
current technology and economy is concerned, ocean water, groundwater buried deeply
and glaciers distributing on the polar, high mountains and plateaus can not be exploited
and utilized on a large scale. Therefore, water resource is commonly known as surface
freshwater resource that can be utilized directly by human beings and ground
freshwater resource buried not deeply. But this volume is less than 0.01 percent of the
total water storage of the world.
Total volume
100%
The ratio of fresh water volume to the total
2.78%
The ratio of surface water
volume to the total
0.643%
Snow and glacier
99.35%
Ocean water
Fresh lake
0.33%
Fresh
water
Fresh water
2.78%
Soil water
Ground water
11.02%
Deep ground water
11.12%
Saline lake
0.28%
Atmosphere
Water
0.03%
Glacier
0.003%
Map of Global River Annual Runoff
（Jones,1998)
The Contrast among Potential Water Supply、
Estimated Population of 2010 and Time of
Population Doubling of Each Continent
With the increasing of population, water supply per capita is decreasing. On
the other hand ，with the development of economy, water requirements per
capita is increasing at the same time. It is estimated that there should be about
eighty countries lacking in water in the coming future.
Region
Africa
Asia
AustraliaOceania
Europe
North
America
South
America
Global
Land area Annual average The proportion to The proportion to
Runoff
(km3/a)
global annual
runoff (%)
global population
in 2010(%)
Estimated
population
of 2010(Ma)
Time of
population
doubling (a)
Division of Earth’s Surface Runoff Resource in China
The runoff of China is supplied by precipitation. As a result, it
distributes corresponding to precipitation. On the basis of runoff quantity,
precipitation and evaporation, China was divided into five different areas:
areas rich in water, areas with much water, transition areas, areas with
little water and areas lacking in water.
Names of
runoff area
Areas lacking
in water
Areas with
little water
Transition
area
Areas with
much water
Areas rich
in water
Precipitation
(mm)
Runoff
depth
(mm)
Land
Evaporation
(mm)
Runoff
Coefficient
(%)
Natural
landscape
Desert
Semi-desert and prairie
Deciduous broadleaf forest
and forest prairie
Evergreen and deciduous
Broadleaf forest
Tropical rainforest and
Sub-tropical evergreen forest
Outlines of Land Classification and Land Evaluation
Land adaptability refers to the land suitable degree to some kind of economic
utility.
Mutisuitability: Lands are suitable for agricultural production, forest production
and pasture production at the same time.
Doblesuitability: Lands are suitable for two types of production mentioned above
at the same time.
Singlesuitability: Lands are suitable for one type of production mentioned
above.
Nosuitability: Lands can not be utilized with current science and technology.
Limitation: It refers to the restraining degree of some adverse factors to land
suitability and productive potential.
Economic benefits: It refers to the available benefits provided by land. It is
one of the main measurements of land quality.
Ecological benefits: It refers to the quality of land ecosystems.
The Comparison Among Land Classification Units
(Chen Chuan-kang, 1993)
Three levels of classification system
Phase: It is the minimal unit of land classification and also the land region where the
comprehensive natural characteristics are most consistent.
Land facet (land unit): Phases combine with each other regularly so as to form the intermediate
land classification unit.
District (land system): Land facets combine with each other regularly so as to form the advanced
land classification unit.
From phase to land facet and further to district, the inner structures of land become more and
more complex, the inner consistency is weaker and weaker but the discrimination gets more
and more obvious.
Land
classification
Physiognomy
Climate
Hydrology
Soil
Vegetation
Phase
Physiognomy
surface
small climate
Of the same
quality
of soil water
Variety
Associations
Land facet
Primary
physiognomy
Combinations of
small climate
Of the same
drainage
condition and
diving condition
Combinations of
variety
Combinations of
association
District
Combinations of
Primary
physiognomy
Local climate
Small valley
Various type unit
Various type unit
The Relationship Between Individual Unit and Grade
Generally, family, genus and specie can be used as units of land type by virtue of
biologic classification. For example, as far as the division of land type in the same level
is concerned, the phases with similar property are included into phase specie, the phase
species with similar property are included into phase genus and the phase genus with
similar property are included into phase family.
State
Sequence of individual unit
In a similar way, the
land facets with similar
property are included into
land-facet specie, the landfacet species with similar
property are included into
land-facet genus and the
land-facet genus with similar
property are included into
land-facet family. According
to the same method, district
can be divided into district
species, district genus and
district family.
Units of physical
regionalization
Units of land
classification
Of stateSpecie
Genus
Of
landscape
Specie
Landscape
Genus
Of
Specie
district
District
Genus
Land
facet
Phase
Of land
facet Specie
Of phase Specie
Genus
Genus
Family
Family
Family
Family
Family
Sequence of characteristic unit
据伊萨钦科
Double-Row Index Grid Method
Characteristics of soil and vegetation
(wet→dry)
(high→low)
Physiognomy site
After classified, the land grade
can be noted by the method of
sequence. That is to say, all levels of
units can be showed directly in
sequence of family, genus and species.
Generally, family can be noted by Latin
numbers, such as Ⅰ,Ⅱ,Ⅲ,Ⅳ,Ⅴ and so
on. Genus can be noted by English
letters, such as a, b, c, d, e and so on.
Species can be noted by Arabian
numbers, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.
Finally , three of them are assembled
orderly so as to express land grade
and their relations with signs, such as
Ⅰa1、Ⅱb2、Ⅲc3. At the same time, it
also can be expressed by double-row
index grid method.
According to Chen Chuan-kang
Chart of Land Grade
Land grade is the final result of land assessment and also the essential part of land
grading. The number of land grade is ascertained according to the complexity of
assessment purpose. At present, land grade is classified into eight. From the first to
the eighth, land adaptability and productive potentials decreases orderly but numbers
of restrictive factors to them are more and more. If the they are in the same level of
grade, then land adaptability and productive potentials of them are the same too.
Decreasing adaptability
Potential
Grade
The best
Mutiadaptability
The
Good
better
DoubleSingleadaptability
adaptability
Suit for
Suit for Suit for
Common agriculture forest pasture
and pasture
Noadaptability
Suit for
none
Decreasing productive potentials
Recurrent-Type Structure
(According to Chen Chuan-kang)
Land structure can be classified into two types: recurrent-type structure and
repeated-type structure. Recurrent-type structure means that each kind of land type
arranges in spatial sequence and combines together to form a certain sequence.
Hillside, seacoast and valley
Lake basin
Recurrent-type structure
(according to Chen Chuan-kang)
Repeated-Type Structure
(According to Chen Chuan-kang)
Repeated-type
structure means that
land type does not
alternate in spatial
sequence but
distributes as patches.
The typical examples
are mesa incised by
gulches, paleohammocks and
grassland in the
shallow valley.
Paleo-hammocks on the plain
Gulches on the mesa
Repeated-type structure
(according to Chen Chuan-kang)
Comprehensive Physical Regionalization
Physical regionalization refers to research means by which
physical regional units are classified and merged gradually
according to comparability and difference of physical geographical
characteristics in some certain areas and some regional
hierarchical system are built based on the subordinations between
these regional units.
Principles of regionalization
Principle of the same inducing reasons;
Principle of homologous appearance;
Principle of regional conjugation;
Principle of combining comprehensive
analysis with leading factors;
Principle of combining zonal factors
with unzonal factors.
Methods of regionalization
Methods of geographic relative analysis;
Methods of prevailing symbols;
Methods of from-top-to-bottom;
Methods of from-bottom-to-top;
Methods of overlap of departmantal
Regionalization.
Double-row Hierarchical System and the
Relationships among Its Units
Nature regions are restricted
jointly by laws of zonal distributions
and unzonal distributions. Based on
Big region
this two differential laws, land
regionalization was classified into
zonal regionalization unit hierarchical
system and unzonal one. The both are Region
jointly entitled as double-row
hierarchical system of comprehensive
Sub-region
physical regionalization unit. As for
zonal hierarchical system of
regionalization unit, it follows the
sequence: natural belt, natural zone,
State
natural sub-zone and natural hypozone. As far as unzonal one is
concerned, it follows the sequence: big
region, natural region, sub-region and
small region.
Zone
Country
Section
Province
Subsection
Belt
Zone
Sub-zone
State
Hyposection
Area
Hypo-zone
Chart of Division of Single-row Hierarchical System
(Modified by Chen Chuan-kang)
From the point of some scholars, the differences between natural regions and
laws of spatial distributions of regional units are the comprehensive reflections on
laws of regional differentiation. As a result, it is suggested that there should be
another uniform regionalization hierarchical system reflecting zonal and unzonal laws
of regional differentiation and this system should follow the sequence : zone, natural
country, section, natural province, sub-section, natural state, hypo-section, landscape
and so on.
Zone
Section
Country
Sub-section
Province
state
①Boundary of big regions
② Boundary of regions
③ Boundary of sub-regions
④ Boundary of hypo-regions
⒈ Boundary of belts
⒉ Boundary of zones
⒊ Boundary of sub-zones
⒋ Boundary of hypo-zones
Hypo-section
Landscape
Comprehensive Physical Regionalization
The polar
World’s physical
regionalization
Cold temperate
zone
Warm temperate
zone
Five zones and
one region
Tropical
zone
Tibetan alpine
region
The equator
China’s physical
regionalization
Three large
regions
Northwest
arid region
Tibetan Highcold region
East
monsoon
region
The Characteristics of Three Big Regions
(According to Xi Cheng-pan and Qiu Bao-jian)
Big region
Proportion to
total area(%)
East monsoon region
Northwest arid region
Tibetan High- cold
region
47.6
29.8
22.6
95
4.5
0.5
Climate
Monsoon climate;
being drought in some areas.
Arid
High cold;
low temperature
Physiognomy
Mainly being made up of plains
and hills, with an elevation
below 500meters
Basins and plateau divided
by high mountains
Plateau with an
elevation above
5000 meters
Zonal
Latitude zone
Longitude zone
Vertical zone and
plateau zone
Water
condition
Rivers develop well;
Precipitation supply;
Much water in south but
little in north
Proportion
to total
population(%)
Island rivers;
precipitation supply,
Island rivers in west and
cradles of rivers in east;
ice and snow melting water
supply
Being acid in south but alkaline in
north;
abundant organic materials in
northeast area;
Lime and alkali in the soil;
little organic materials;
a lot of sand and wind
Strong mechanical weathering;
organic materials being
decomposed into meadow
vegetation
Tropical rainforest; evergreen
broadleaf forest; Deciduous
broadleaf forest; taiga forest
Dry prairie; desert prairie; desert
and taiga forest in some mountain areas
Alpine meadow; alpine prairie;
alpine desert;
forest in river valley
Agricultural
Food production; fruit; agriculture;
Prairie;
Plateau prairie; agriculture
soil
Chapter 7
Predictions on the Earth’s Surface Environment
Section 1: Principles of predictions on the earth’s
surface environment;
Section 2: The variation trend of the lithosphere;
Section 3: The variation trend of the atmosphere;
Section 4: The variation trend of the hydrosphere;
Section 5: The variation trend of the biosphere;
Section 6: The variation trend the earth’s surface
environment.
Principles of Predictions on the Earth’s
Surface Environment
Principle of space-time scale
Space-time scale must be taken into account when predicting the earth’s
surface environment.
Principle of mutual effects between human beings and nature
We have to consider feedback of natural changes and human activities at the
same time.
Principle of relevance
The earth’s surface environment is a complex system. Each subsystem
interacts and interrelates with each other. Changes of subsystem will result
in the changes of system.
Non-linear principle
When predicting the changes of environment，the first analysis we should
make is the time limitation of prediction , what kind of state environment is
in，whether or not it can be predicted and whether there are mutation spots
during the limited time. With these, we can establish mathematics model for
prediction.
The Variation Trends of the Lithosphere
The result of Plate movement
． Global continental Plate drifts westward: The longitude of ocean and
continent will change;
． Eurasian Plate and North America Plate move in opposite directions: It
will result in gradual shrink of Pacific ocean and gradual expand of Atlantic
ocean;
． Australia Plate drifts northeastward: As a result, land area of southern
hemisphere will decrease more and more;
． India Plate drifts northward: Tibetan plateau and Himalayas will uplift further
because of the obstruct of Eurasian Plate. The western part of China will drift
northward.
． East African Rift Valley enlarges: Red Sea will expand and turn into an ocean
finally. Asia will separate from Africa。
There are a lot of human activities shaping the land.
Reclamation, beach protection; Construction of irrigation facilities; City construction ;
Different land use patterns.
Direction and Velocity of Plate Movement
The direction and velocity of Plate movement won’t change a lot over decades
to centuries. So is the boundary of Plate. Therefore, there won’t be essential
changes to distributions of earthquake and volcano. That is to say, they still
distributes on the edge of Plates especially concentrating on the circum-Pacific
belt and Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt. But as far as timescale of 1000000
years is concerned, there will be great changes to seismic belt, volcanic belt,
distributions of Plates and land-sea profiles of the earth’s surface.
Land-Sea Distribution in the Future
(Christensen,1991）
The Variation Trends of the Atmosphere
The variation trends of the components of the atmosphere
The amount of CO2，N2O，CH4 and haloid carbon in the air increases greatly but
that of SO2 increases slightly. The amount of dust also changes.
The variation trends of the structure of the atmosphere
Formation of the Ozonosphere, depletion of the Ozonosphere and changes
of the Ozonosphere.
The variation trends of the atmosphere
As far as timescale of 10000 years is concerned, modern interglacier epoch is
about to be over and new glacier epoch is coming. It will become colder and colder.
But because of greenhouse effect resulting from human beings, there will be a
contrary trend of climatic change.
As far as century timescale is concerned, it won’t be warmer than that of years
between 1900 and 1950. But because of the impact imposed by human beings,
greenhouse effect can not be controlled completely in a short time. Therefore, by
taking account of natural factors and human disturbances, it will be warmer in 21st
century than that of the 19th century but almost equal to or slightly warmer than
that of 20th century.
The Variation Trends of Components of the Atmosphere
(according to Machenzie)
Concentration
Concentration
Concentration
CH4
CO2
Formation and depletion of the Ozonosphere
Ultraviolet rays
Formation of the ozonosphere
Natural process
Ultraviolet rays
Ozone depletion
Ozone depletion
caused by Cl
Human impacts
Ozone depletion
caused by NO
Climatic Changes
On a view of century
timescale, the change of
climate has the obvious
characteristics of doublecentury period. The latest
warm peak happened
during the period of 19001950. There will be next
warm peak after 2050.
Therefore, it is relative
cold during the period of
2000-2050. That is to say,
it has been relatively
warm-cool since 1950 and
this trend will last till
2050. There will be a lot of
short-time climatic
fluctuations during this
period, but as far as
natural trend is concerned,
it will not be warmer than
that of 1900-1950.
Temperature
Greenland Ice Land England
global
China
(winter)
Tree-ring index
Of Qilian Mountain
Change Trend of the Hydrosphere
Change of sea level
．Global warming——Glacier melting——Sea level rise；
．Crustal subsidence——Relative rise of sea level；
． Land subsidence——Sea level rise；
．Temperature of sea water raising——Sea water expanding——Sea level rise.
Water circulation and the change of water balance
． Plate movement—Shrink of Pacific ocean and expand of Atlantic ocean—
change of pattern of water circulation—Regional imbalance of water balance;
． Further uplift of Tibetan Plateau——Desertification in the middle part of Asian;
． Global warming——Great changes of global water balance.
The change of components and structures of the hydrosphere
． The proportion of gaseous water and liquid water increases but that of solid water
decreases;
． Because of sea level rise, the earth surface’s water distributes toward low-latitude;
． The trend of asymmetry distribution of river, lake and swamp becomes
more and more obvious.
Sea Level Change
It is indicated by research that
current sea level is not horizontal
but irregular. This surface varies
with the change of earth’s gravity
field. The highest uplift lies in New
Guinea with an elevation 76
meters higher than mean sea level
and the biggest depression lies in
Maldives with an elevation 104
meters lower than mean sea level.
The height difference between
them is 180 meters and it
surpasses the mean change range
of sea level during glacierinterglacier epoches. Because the
gravity field of earth surface is
determined by the earth’s interior
components and the lithosphere
drifts eastward away from the
centrosphere and mantle, the
earth’s gravity field will change all
over the world. It will result in the
change of sea level.
Sea Level Change
Sea level changes
On a view of century timescale,
there will be an ascend trend of
sea level because of the global
warming in the future. But as for
the estimation to the increase
range of sea level, there are great
differences. According to the
prediction on the trend of climate
change mentioned above, we can
conclude safely that mean sea
level of the world will increase 15
centimeters by the year 2030 and
increase 40-50 centimeters by the
year 2100. But taking the factors
like ground subsidence into
account, the increase range of sea
level on some large-scale
eatuarine shorelines and coastal
plains is far more than the value
mentioned above.
High
The change of aerosol since 1990
The amount of aerosol equal to that of 1990
Middle
Low
According
to Warrick
et al.,1996
据Warrick
et al.,1996
Effects of sea level rise
Marine erosion enhance
Storm surges enhance
Saline lands
Seawater intrusion
Sewage holdback
Affect function of haven
and sea-route
Submerge land
Flood and waterlogging strengthen
Change trend of biosphere
component changes of biosphere
Reduction of biologic species
scale-up of proportion of human
Task of protecting biodiversity is difficult
structure changes of biosphere
Increasing of content of microorganism in the air（humidity augment）；
Asymmetry of biology horizontal distribution in the earth surface augments much more（
local diversity of precipitation enlarge）；
expanding towards mid-latitude of biologic distributing （warming）；
Space of sea and ocean ecosystem expands，but that of land ecosystem reduces（sea level
rise）
Some fisheries disappear，but others maybe enlarge or shape（changes of ocean currents）.
changes of ecological productivity
Because of warming, aggravation of plant diseases and insect pests， some species’s
productivity will reduce ； productivity of some species ， especially wheat, paddy,
soybean and so on，will increase because of elevated CO2 and photosynthesis enhance.
Change trend of biosphere
mammalia
Numbers of extinct animal
Population/ten hundred million
Because biology need some
time to adapt the changes of
environment，a number of
species will depopulation
because of changes of
environment. Temperature
warms up，especially at the
mid and high latitude, some
biology which like stay
around cold environment would
increase or disappear because
they could not bear high
temperature. In some arid
areas water reduces much more，
some species also decreases
or disappear. Although
environmental changes would
give birth to new species，in
short time, extinct biologic
species is much more than new
species. In addition,because
of human impact，biodiversity
will destroy much more. 。That
is say,in the future，
biosphere is not rich and
colorful than now.
birds
year
Population growth and extinct animal（Tao Shilong etl.）
Changes of biosphere construction
Physical biologic species is reducing，but the number of population is
always increasing 。According to predication, amount will be more 100
million before 2050.If don’t adopt available measures，44 years later，the
number of population would double. So in the future human Proportion will
largen.
Second world war
Industrial revolution
Population/ten hundred million
The world
Developing areas
Developed areas
According to Mackenzie,1998
Changes of biosphere structure
In the view of long time ， regulation of changes of land and sea
distribution 、surface relief，will cause great changes and regulation of
zone of vegetation and biota, so biosphere structure would change much more.
For example, forest in east Asia would disappear because of the Pacific's disappear. At
last it would become grassland and desert.
interglacial
Brushy tundra
The arctic ocean
Mediterranean sea
Mountain glacier
Broad-leaved forest
North coniferous forest
The last Glacial maxmum (18000 aB.P.)
Dry grassland
Pole desert
Dry grass tundra
Pine
Betula
Low Betula
Dry grassland
tundre
Brushy tundra
Mixing Quercus
Ilex and Quercus
Zelkova
Spruce and Abies
Tundra
Mountain glacier
Betula
Broad-leaved forest
Continental glacier
European vegetation changes in glacial age –interglacial age
Changes of biosphere structure (wangjian,2000)
In the view of short time，global climate changes will cause the changes of biosphere
structure and construction.（1）Content of microorganism increase in the air.（2）In the
earth’s surface asymmetry of biologic horizon distribution largen more.（3）Biologic
distribution expands towards mid-latitude.（4）Space of ocean ecosystem will scale-up，but
that of land ecosystem will dwindle because of marine erosion caused by sea level rise。
（5） Some fisheries disappear，but others maybe enlarge or shape because of changes of ocean currents
caused by sea level rise and ocean water’s temperature changes .
Biodiversity lower
accretion of human Proportion
Expansion of ocean ecosystem
expand towards mid-latitude
of biologic distribution
Changes of
biosphere
inhomogeneity of
spatial distribution
Land ecosystem reduce
content of microorganism
increase in the air
Diminution of pure nature
vegetable during the process of greenhouse (double content of Co2，Mackenzie,1998)
Tundra
north forest
deciduous
broad-leaved forest
brush grass
ever-green forest
savanna
expanded model towards mid-latitude of biologic distribution
（present-day, Mackenzie,1998 ）
present
Variation trend of the earth’s surface environment
1、 The more man-made environment,
the less natural environment
population growth in a
short time will not change
much more. With the
population growth and
developments in science
and technology, human
influence the earth’s
surface
environment
much more. The ratio of
got-up environment or
man-made environment
will be higher，and that
pure natural environment
will be less.
2、changes of energy flow
Now primary energy used by human
is fossil fuel （ coal 、 petroleum 、
natural gas）. However, the use of
fossil
fuel
causes
many
environmental problems. Human
actively want to create new energy
which can replace fossil fuel in all its
bearings. so it will change energy flow
in the future from underground to
surface, from coteau to plain, from
ocean to land, from country to city.
Variation trend of the earth’s surface environment
3、changes of matter flow
Changes of aspect and intensity
matter exchange between human and environment
strengthening exchange between human and environment
4、changes of information flow
Changes of aspect ： In the future information flow will not change but
enhance from developed country and area to developing country.
intensity：Intensity will augment distinctly.
velocity：With the development of communication and network technology，
speed of transmission will enhance greatly.
Chapter 16
Planning and Management of the
Earth’s Surface Environment
General description of environmental planning
Drawing-up of environmental planning
Environmental management and its characteristics
Task and content of environmental management
Measures of environmental management
Environmental management information system
Environmental planning and principle
Environmental planning is organic composition of national economy
and social development plan ， and refers to concrete plan of
environmental decision in the scale of time and space.And it also
bring forward explicit environmental goal and impactful measures
protecting environmental waste and damage ， in order to improve ecoenvironment ， and advance coordinated development of environment,
economy and society.
assorting with economy and societal development projects
Principles of
Environmental
planning
feasible and easy to operate
Ameliorating environment，guarantee correspond between environment , society and economy
Feature of environmental planning
local diversity:Based on regional difference，environmental
planning must build upon regional environment characteristic，in
order to achieve maneuverability.
harmonization: Environment planning should combine with country
economy and social developmental planning，and harmonize
development with protection.
dynamic properties: Goals and contents will change constantly，so they
should be endlessly recruited and amended。
synthesis properties:The object of environmental planning is the
earth’s surface environment.And the earth’s surface environment is a
complex syntheses. Environmental planning colligates more knowledge.
Classification of environmental planning
Short-term planning
According to time limit : Medium-term
planning
Long-term planning
According to range and level:
Global environmental planning
Country environmental planning
Regional environmental planning
According to object:
comprehensive (unitary) environmental planning
special (subject、section) environmental planning
Principles of drawing-up of environmental planning
Ecology balance
Contact and restrict each other
limit property principle
each resource and environmental bearing the
weight are limit.
integer principle In the environment system each element or variable
which contact and restrict each other composes organic entia.
local characteristics principle the earth’s surface environment provides
with regional attributes ， so adjusting measures should accord as local
conditionds.
principle of taking prevention first Perist in principles of taking
prevention first ， integrating prevention and cure ， comprehensive planning ，
proper redistribution ， standing out stress ， giving attention to two or
morethings ， and turning working stresses around environmental comprehensive
regulatory.
proceeding of drawing-up of environmental planning
Commonly ， the drawing-up of environmental planning is to figure out the
environment question in some area，improve ecology environment，and correspond
with relationship between environment, economy and society. Owing to distinct
objects,
goals,
tasks,contents
and
extensions ， there
environment planning. But whatever it is ， it must
are
many types
of
keep to some produces and
methods:
Programming work plan
Environmental research and evaluation
environment forecast
proceeding of drawing-up
of environmental planning
ascertain aims
design schemes of environmental planning
declare Schemes and examine and approve
Carry into practice
Characters of environmental management
stratagem Environmental management contacts with implementing sustainable
development strategy.
synthesis environmental management must be incorporated into the national
economic and social development plans; the state shall adopt economic and technological
policies and measures favorable for environmental protection so as to coordinate the work
of environmental protection with economic construction and social development. The state
shall encourage the development of education in the science of environmental protection,
strengthen the study and development of the science and technology of environmental
protection, raise the scientific and technological level of environmental protection and
popularize scientific knowledge of environmental protection.
Quality of region Environmental management should adjust measures to
local conditions, put forward diverse measures，adopt different methods and
artifices to realization according to different areas.
Universality All units and individuals shall have the obligation to protect the
environment and shall have the right to report on or file charges against units or
individuals that cause pollution or damage to the environment. The people's government
shall give awards to units and individuals that have made outstanding achievements in
protecting and improving the environment.
Task of environmental management
（ 1 ） Reasonably empolder and make use of natural resource ， maintain
ecology balance order to sustain.
（ 2 ） Attach importance to prevention and cure of environment pollution
and optimization and reconstruction of ecological environment ， in the
interest of human’s subsistence and development.
（ 3 ） Natural environment system’s structure and function optimize
towards direction what people prospective by controlling its matter flow,
energy flow, information flow.
（ 4 ） Human play a directorial and under directorial role in
environmental management.Therefore ， human should take powerful measures to
adjust and alter human unreasonable behaviors and activities ， in order to
reduce waste and destroy.
（ 5 ） establish feasible policies, laws, ordinances, programming of
environmental protection，put forward material routes and measures.
（6）go along environment science research，for the sake of
environmental protect to train person with management ability. At the same
time，strengthen propagandism and education work in order to advance
people’s participant consciousness.
classification and content of environmental management
content of environmental management is far-ranging and
complicated. Commonly we can compartmentalize it in
the aspect of administrant range and attribution.
（一） Classifying according to range
1.resource environmental management
2. professional environmental management
3.regional environmental management
（二）Classifying according to property
1. environmental quality management
2. environmental arrange management
3. environmental technique management
Instruments of environmental management
Law instruments ： It is a coercive measure of environmental management——making
the law and executing the law.
Economic instruments：adopt economic instruments ,as the example of toll of blow
down, economic penalty, compensation for a loss, incentive complex utilization.
Sufficiently display the role of economic law in the environmental management.
Administration instruments ： It recurs to actualize executive decision and
supervision in allusion to protection of resource and environment based on
organic and commanding influence invested by nation and all levels states.
Technique means ： The result of stand or fall lies on technology in a
way.Therefore ， if without advanced technology ， it would only be a dream of
managing environment efficaciously.
Educational instruments ： Through all kinds of routes and manners ， and giving
publicity to the conception of environmental protection far and wide ， the
public can find out significance and task of environmental protection,
excitated environmental protection passion and enthusiasm ， protect and devote
voluntarily to environment ， accordingly in order to form powerful public
opinion，put down behavior of wasting resource and destroying environment.
Environmental management information system
Environmental management information system is a complex and ordered
technical
system
provided
with
integrated
function
refering
to
realizing manipulation of input 、 output 、 modification 、 increase 、
deletion 、 transmission 、 secrecy 、 searches 、 calculation of environment
information, saving environmental information in the computer based on
present-day data-base ， according to hardware and software ，
and
integrating application software of statistic mathematics, optimization
management analysis 、 forecast evaluation model 、 programming decision
model、cartographic output.
Procedure of environmental management information system
project: Based on diagnoses ， fix on aim and require of environmental
management information system ， formulate and filtrate best project, workout
feasibility research report.
analysis: Design logic system according with demands of practicality
and consumer. Contents include system survey,function requirement analysis,
data analysis, advancing logical model and authorizing report.
design: In this step according to logical model putting forward
physical model is the primary task 。 Choosing the best from all kinds
technologies and methods ， and carry into physical model in order to
resolve “how to do”.
putting in practice: when design is over，system must be tested, checked
and accepted. When the system is ok, you can use it. During the course of operation，
pay attention to system maintenance because of guaranteeing sustainable development.
Chapter 17 Adjustment of the
Earth’s Surface System
General description of adjustment
Principles of adjustment
Ways of adjustment
Methods and models of optimization, regulation and
control
Process of adjustment
Concept: Adjustment of the Earth’s Surface System ， means through
people intervene purposefully in order that human can benefit from
the development of the earth’s surface environment, and can obtain
anticipative aims。
Essence:it includes that human constantly ameliorate the relationship
between human and environment ， through adjustment of the earth’s
surface system ， in order to achieving the aims of harmony and
unification between human and environment.
nodus:
Earth’s
Surface
System
is
a
most
complex
gigantic
system.people are short of knowledge of laws of development and
evolution of natural environment. people’s control ability is quite
limit，especially difficult to control nature in long time and large
scale.
Theories and principles of adjustment
principles of adjustment
（一）coordination
（二）flexibility
Theories of
adjustment
（ 一 ）system and systematic
ideology
（二)feedback and control
（三）adjustment
（三）global optimization
（四）ecological principle
（五）economic principle
（六）adaptability
procedures of adjustment
Adjustment of
the earth’s surface
system is a
difficult, gigantic
and intricate
systemic
engineering，and
takes on a suit of
scientific and
rigorous procedure.
The left is step.
Preparation
Confirming aims
Advancing scheme
feedback
System modeling
optimization design
Confirming control scheme
put into execution and control
input
Environmental system
output
Ways of adjustment
Control of matter flow
achieving the aim of controlling systemic structure
and function though adjusting input or output of
systemic physical quality and quantity
Control of energy flow
achieving the aim of control and
optimize earth’s
surface environment though adjusting energy flow
Control of information flow
Changes of information flow will change systemic
structure and function. So controlling information
flow ,also can achieve the aim of controlling
environment.
Linear layout model
traits:
It is one of simplest and broadest
mathematics planning method ， and also one of an optimum
method used earliest.
applying:
It only solves problems that target
function and constraint conditions all take on the
linearity.
produce: first confirm aim,then analyze all factors
influence on aims in order ascertain target function and
all constraint conditions ， then establish linear
programming model，last conclude by mathematics.
Analytic hiberarchy process
feature
scientific
Analytic hiberarchy process which provides with quite
properties,
logicality
and
practicability,
integrates
qualitative analysis with quantitative analysis, ， and also it is an
efficient method to adjust environment as complex system。
procedure
First regard complex problem as a system ，through analyzing
all factors establish the hiberarchy of each factor；compare each factor of
hiberarchy ， present relative essentiality ； more count each ratio of each
factor and compositor ； lastly according to compositor carry on integrated
evaluation， line up excellent and inferior scheme.
reAnalyzing of cost and benefit
Analyzing of cost and benefit
is one of economic analytic
method in best common use.theory
and practice developed in USA in
1930,and now are widely used in
environment economic analysis.。
Its principium is that:
firstly list all cost and
benefits ，then denote
quantificationally recurring to
money，considering time worth of
capital， and embodying all cost
and benefits，lastly calculate
existing cash of net benefit。
Using net benefit as criterion，
choose the best scheme.
Making clear question and controlled goal
environmental function analysis
Relationship between the degree of environmental
damage and environmental function damage
Degree of improving
environment
cost of control planning
Benefit of each plan
cost calculating
benefit calculating
Compare benefit with cost
The right is common step。
out put