Transcript Introduction and Layering

Computer Networking
Yishay Mansour (mansour at cs.tau.ac.il)
Teaching Assistant: Hillel Avni
Oct 18, 2009
1
Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Course Information
Lectures: Sunday
4–7
Exercises: Wednesday 11 –12, 12 – 1
Orenstein 111
Super Center 315 ‫מרכזי על‬
Web site:
http://www.cs.tau.ac.il/research/hillel.avni/courses/comnet10.html
Books:
•A Top-down Approach to Computer Networking / Kurouse-Ross
1. An Engineering Approach to Computer Networking / Keshav
2. Computer Networks / Tanenbaum
3. Data Networks / Bertsekas and Gallager
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Practical Information
Homework assignment:
Mandatory
Both theoretical and programming
Grades:
Final Exam:
theory exercises:
Programming exercises:
60%
20%
20%
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Motivation

Today’s economy


manufacturing, distributing, and retailing goods
but also creating and disseminating information



publishing
banking
film making….
part of the ‘information economy’

Future economy is likely to be dominated by
information!
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Information?


A representation of knowledge
Examples:

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Can be represented in two ways



books
bills
CDs & DVDs
analog (atoms)
digital (bits)
the Digital Revolution


convert information as atoms to information as bits
use networks to move bits around instead of atoms
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The Challenges


Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
represent all types of information as bits.
move the bits






In large quantities,
everywhere,
cheaply,
Securely,
with quality of service,
….
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Today’s Networks are complex!






hosts
routers
links of various media
applications
protocols
hardware, software
Tomorrow’s will be even more!
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Internet Physical Infrastructure
Residential access




Cable
Fiber
DSL
Wireless
ISP
Backbone ISP
ISP
 The Internet is a network
Campus access,
e.g.,


Ethernet
Wireless
Oct 18, 2009
of networks
 Each individually
administrated network is
called an Autonomous
System (AS)
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
This course’s Challenge



To discuss this complexity in an
organized way, that will make today’s
computer networks (and their
limitations) more comprehensive.
identification, and understanding relationship
of complex system’s pieces.
Problems that are beyond a specific
technology
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Early communications systems



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
I.e. telephone
point-to-point links
directly connect together the users wishing to
communicate
use dedicated communication circuit
if distance between users increases beyond the
length of the cable, the connection is formed by a
number of sections connected end-to-end in series.
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Data Networks


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set of interconnected nodes exchange information
sharing of the transmission circuits= "switching".
many links allow more than one path between every
2 nodes.
network must select an appropriate path for each
required connection.
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Qwest backbone
Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
http://www.qwest.com/largebusiness/enterprisesolutions/networkMaps/preloader.swf 12/71
Networking Issues - Telephone
Addressing - identify the end user
phone number 1-201-222-2673 = country code + city code +
exchange + number

Routing - How to get from source to destination.
Telephone circuit switching: Based on the phone number.

Information Units - How is information sent
telephone Samples @ Fixed sampling rate. not self
descriptive! have to know where and when a sample came
Oct 18, 2009
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Networking Issues - Internet

Addressing - identify the end user
IP addresses 132.66.48.37, Refer to a host interface =
network number + host number

Routing- How to get from source to destination
Packet switching: move packets (chunks) of data among
routers from source to destination independently.

Information Units - How is information sent.
Self-descriptive data: packet = data + metadata (header).
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Telephone networks support a single, end-toend quality of service but is expensive to boot
Internet supports no quality of service but is
flexible and cheap
Future networks will have to support a wide
range of service qualities at a reasonable cost
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
History
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
1961: Kleinrock - queuing theory shows effectiveness of
packet-switching
1964: Baran - packet-switching in military networks
1967: ARPAnet – conceived by Advanced Research Projects
Agency
1969: first ARPAnet node operational
1972: ARPAnet demonstrated publicly
 NCP (Network Control Protocol) first host-host
protocol
 first e-mail program
 ARPAnet has 15 nodes
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History
Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and
proprietary nets
1970: ALOHAnet satellite network in Hawaii
1973: Metcalfe’s PhD thesis proposes Ethernet
1974: Cerf and Kahn - architecture for interconnecting
networks
late70’s: proprietary architectures: DECnet, SNA, XNA
late 70’s: switching fixed length packets (ATM precursor)
1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking principles:

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minimalism, autonomy - no internal
changes required to interconnect networks
best effort service model
stateless routers
decentralized control
Defines today’s Internet architecture
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History
Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
1980-1990: new protocols,
proliferation of networks
1983:
1982:
1983:
1985:
1988:
deployment of TCP/IP
SMTP e-mail protocol defined
DNS defined for name-to-IP-address translation
FTP protocol defined
TCP congestion control
new national networks: CSnet, BITnet, NSFnet, Minitel
100,000 hosts connected to confederation of networks
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
History
1990 - : commercialization and WWW
early 1990’s: ARPAnet decommissioned
1991: NSF lifts restrictions on commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995)
early 1990s: WWW
hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson 1960’s]
HTML, http: Berners-Lee
1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
late 1990’s: commercialization of WWW
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Demand and Supply

Huge growth in users

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Faster home access

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Better user experience.
Infrastructure

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The introduction of the web
Significant portion of telecommunication.
New evolving industries

Although, sometimes temporary setbacks
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Internet: Users
Million users
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009
year
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Penetration around the Globe (2009)
80
%Population
USA+Canada
%Penetration
70
Australia
60
Asia/Pacific
Europe
50
40
Latin America
30
20
Middle East
Asia/Pacific
Africa
10
Europe
Africa
Middle East
USA+Canada
Latin America
Australia
U
http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm
Au
st
ra
lia
er
ic
a
Am
La
tin
SA
+C
an
ad
a
st
Ea
id
dl
e
M
Eu
ro
pe
cif
ic
As
ia
/P
a
Af
ric
a
0
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Users around the Globe (2002/5/9)
800
Asia/Pacific
700
2009
600
500
2005
Europe
400
2002
300
USA+Canada
Latin America
200
100
Africa
Middle East
Australia
Au
st
ra
lia
er
ic
a
Am
La
tin
an
ad
a
st
U
SA
+C
Ea
id
dl
e
M
Eu
ro
pe
cif
ic
As
ia
/P
a
Af
ric
a
0
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Technology: Modem speed
100000
56000
60000
40000
20000
300 1200 2400
33600
28800
14400
9600
0
19
79
19
80
19
84
19
87
19
91
19
93
19
95
19
97
20
08
bps
80000
year
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Today’s options
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Modem: 56 K
OBSOLETE
ISDN: 64K – 128K
Frame Relay: 56K ++
Today High Speed Connections


Cable, ADSL, Satellite.
All are available at


5Mb (2005)
30 Mb (2009)
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Coming soon
Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
(1999)
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Today (2005)
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Why do we need Standards

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Networks (and other media) support
communication between different entities
Need agreement to ensure correct, efficient
and meaningful communication
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Various Organizations Issue Standards

IEEE (Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers)

IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)

ITU (International Telecommunications Union)

ISO (International Organization for Standardization)

W3C (World Wide Web Consortium)
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Protocol Layers
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A way for organizing structure of network
 … Or at least our discussion of networks

The idea: a series of steps
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Protocol Layering

Necessary because communication is complex

Intended primarily for protocol designers

Divides the problem into intellectually manageable pieces

Provides a conceptual framework that can help us understand
protocols

Think of layering as a guideline, not a rigid specification

Understand that optimizations may violate strict layering

Should be invisible to users
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Mail system functionality
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
How do we Communicate?

Send a mail from Alice to Bob
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
Bob
Alice in Champaign, Bob in Hollywood
Example:

US Postal Service
Alice
Hollywood, California
Champaign, Illinois
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
What does Alice do?
Alice
200 Cornfield Rd.
Champaign, IL 61820
Bob
100 Santa Monica Blvd.
Hollywood, CA 90028


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Bob’s address (to a mailbox)
Bob’s name – in case people share mailbox
Postage – have to pay!
Alice’s own name and address


in case Bob wants to return a message
In case the mail has to be returned.
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
What does Bob do?
Alice
200 Cornfield Rd.
Champaign, IL 61820
Bob
100 Santa Monica Blvd.
Hollywood, CA 90028




Install a mailbox
Receive the mail
Get rid of envelope
Read the message
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Layers:
Person delivery of parcel
Post office counter handling
Ground transfer: loading on trucks
Peer entities
Airport transfer: loading on airplane
Airplane routing from source to destination
each layer implements a service
via its own internal-layer actions

relying on services provided by layer below

Oct 18, 2009
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Advantages of Layering

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explicit structure allows identification &
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
modularization eases maintenance &
updating of system
 change of implementation of layer’s
service transparent to rest of system
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Protocols

A protocol is a set of rules and formats
that govern the communication
between communicating peer

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set of valid messages - syntax
meaning of each message - semantics
Necessary for any function that requires
cooperation between peers
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Protocols
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A protocol provides a service
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
For example: the post office protocol for reliable
parcel transfer service
Peer entities use a protocol to provide a
service to a higher-level peer entity

for example, truck drivers use a protocol to
present post offices with the abstraction of an
unreliable parcel transfer service
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Protocol Layers
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
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A network that provides many services needs
many protocols
Some services are independent, But others
depend on each other
A Protocol may use another protocol as a step in
its execution


for example, ground transfer is one step in the
execution of the example reliable parcel transfer
protocol
This form of dependency is called layering

Post office handling is layered above parcel ground
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transfer protocol.
Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Open protocols and systems

A set of protocols is open if

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A system that implements open protocols is
called an open system
International Organization for Standards (ISO)
prescribes a standard to connect open systems


protocol details are publicly available
changes are managed by an organization whose
membership and transactions are open to the public
open system interconnect (OSI)
Has greatly influenced thinking on protocol
stacks
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
ISO OSI reference model

Reference model

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Service architecture

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formally defines what is meant by a layer, a service
etc.
describes the services provided by each layer and the
service access point
Protocol architecture


set of protocols that implement the service
architecture
compliant service architectures may still use noncompliant protocol architectures
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
The seven Layers
There are only 5 !!
Application
Presentation
Session
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Network
Data Link
Physical
Physical
End system
Intermediate
system
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
End system
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
The seven Layers - protocol stack
data
Application
Presentation
Session
AH
PH
Network
Data Link
Physical
Physical
Session
data
SH
Transport
Network
Data Link
TH
data
data
data
NH
data
DH+data+DT
bits
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
and presentation layers are not so important, and are often ignored
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
‫עיקרון השכבות‬
Source
Application
‫ מתקבלת הודעה‬X ‫בשכבה‬
Destination
‫זהה להודעה ששכבה‬
Application
‫ מסרה בצד המקור‬X
Identical message
Transport
Transport
Identical message
Network
Identical message
Data-Link
Network
Data-Link
Network
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Postal network
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Application: people using the postal system
Session and presentation: chief clerk sends some
priority mail, and some by regular mail ;
translator translates letters going abroad.
Transport layer: mail clerk sends a message,
retransmits if not acked
Network layer: postal system computes a route and
forwards the letters
datalink layer: letters carried by planes, trains,
automobiles
physical layer: the letter itself
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Internet protocol stack

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application: supporting network applications
 ftp, smtp, http
transport: host-host data transfer
 tcp, udp
network: routing of datagrams from source
to destination
 ip, routing protocols
link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements
 ppp, ethernet
physical: bits “on the wire”
application
transport
network
link
physical
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Protocol layering and data
M
Ht M
Hn Ht M
Hl Hn Ht M
source
destination
application
transport
network
Link
physical
application
transport
network
Link
physical
M
message
Ht M
Hn Ht M
Hl Hn Ht M
segment
datagram
frame
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Physical layer


Moves bits between physically connected
end-systems
Standard prescribes




L1
coding scheme to represent a bit
shapes and sizes of connectors
bit-level synchronization
Internet

technology to move bits on a wire, wireless link, satellite
channel etc.
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Datalink layer


L2
(Reliable) communication over a single link.
Introduces the notion of a frame

set of bits that belong together

Idle markers tell us that a link is not carrying a

Begin and end markers delimit a frame

Internet
frame



a variety of datalink layer protocols
most common is Ethernet
others are FDDI, SONET, HDLC
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Datalink layer (contd.)

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Ethernet (broadcast link)

end-system must receive only bits meant for it

need datalink-layer address

also need to decide who gets to speak next

these functions are provided by Medium ACcess sublayer (MAC)
Datalink layer protocols are the first layer of software
Very dependent on underlying physical link properties
Usually bundle both physical and datalink in hardware.
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Network layer

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
L3
Carries data from source to destination.
Logically concatenates a set of links to form the
abstraction of an end-to-end link
Allows an end-system to communicate with any other
end-system by computing a route between them
Hides idiosyncrasies of datalink layer
Provides unique network-wide addresses
Found both in end-systems and in intermediate systems
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Network layer types

In datagram networks


provides both routing and data forwarding
In connection-oriented network



separate data plane and control plane
data plane only forwards and schedules data
(touches every byte)
control plane responsible for routing, callestablishment, call-teardown (doesn’t touch data
bytes)
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Network layer (contd.)

Internet
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
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network layer is provided by Internet Protocol (IP)
found in all end-systems and intermediate systems
provides abstraction of end-to-end link
segmentation and reassembly
packet-forwarding, routing, scheduling
unique IP addresses
can be layered over anything, but only best-effort
service
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Network layer (contd.)


At end-systems

primarily hides details of datalink layer

segments and reassemble

detects errors
At intermediate systems
 participates in routing protocol to create routing
tables
 responsible for forwarding packets
 schedules the transmission order of packets
 chooses which packets to drop
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Transport layer


L4
Reliable end-to-end communication.
creates the abstraction of an error-controlled,
flow-controlled and multiplexed end-to-end link
(Network layer provides only a ‘raw’ end-to-end service)

Some transport layers provide fewer services
e.g. simple error detection, no flow control, and no retransmission


Internet
TCP provides error control, flow control, multiplexing

UDP provides only multiplexing

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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Transport layer (contd.)

Error control



Flow control


GOAL: message will reach destination despite packet loss,
corruption and duplication
ACTIONS: retransmit lost packets; detect, discard, and
retransmit corrupted packets; detect and discard duplicated
packets
match transmission rate to rate currently sustainable on the path
to destination, and at the destination itself
Multiplexes multiple applications to the same
end-to-end connection

adds an application-specific identifier (port number) so that
receiving end-system can hand in incoming packet to the correct
application
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Session layer



Not common
Provides full-duplex service, expedited data
delivery, and session synchronization
Internet

doesn’t have a standard session layer
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Session layer (cont.)

Duplex


Expedited data delivery


if transport layer is simplex, concatenates two transport
endpoints together
allows some messages to skip ahead in end-system queues,
by using a separate low-delay transport layer endpoint
Synchronization

allows users to place marks in data stream and to roll back
to a prespecified mark
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Presentation layer


Usually ad hoc
Touches the application data
(Unlike other layers which deal with headers)

Hides data representation differences between
applications



characters (ASCII, unicode, EBCDIC.)
Can also encrypt data
Internet


no standard presentation layer
only defines network byte order for 2- and 4-byte
integers
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Application layer


The set of applications that use the network
Doesn’t provide services to any other layer
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
‫עיקרון השכבות‬
Destination
Source
VoIP
Email(smtp)
UDP
TCP
ftp
Network (IPv4)
Modem
Ethernet
Application
Transport
Network
WiFi
Data-Link
Network
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
‫עיקרון השכבות‬
Destination
Source
app1
UDP
app2
app3
TCP
app2
UDP
Network (IPv4)
Modem Ethernet
app1
app3
TCP
Network (IPv4)
WiFi
Modem
Ethernet
WiFi
Network
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Discussion


Layers break a complex problem into
smaller, simpler pieces.
Why seven layers?



Need a top and a bottom  2
Need to hide physical link; so need datalink  3
Need both end-to-end and hop-by-hop actions; so
need at least the network and transport layers  5
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Lecture 1: Oct 18, 2009
Course outline
1
2
3
Introduction and Layering
Data Link: Multi Access
Hubs, Bridges and Routers
4
5
6
Scheduling and Buffer Management
Switching Fabrics
Routing
7
8
9
Reliable Data Transfer
End to End Window Based Protocols
Flow Control
10
11
12
Multimedia and QoS
Network Security
Distributed Algorithms
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