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Chapter 2
Network Models
2-1 LAYERED TASKS
 We use the concept of layers in our daily life
 As an example, let us consider 2 friends who communicate
through postal mail.
 The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the post
office.
Process of sending a letter
 Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
 Hierarchy
 Tasks must be done in order given in hierarchy
 Services
 each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer below it.
Tasks involved in sending a letter
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A network model is a layered architecture
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Task broken into subtasks
Implemented separately in layers in stack
Functions need in both systems
Peer layers communicate
Protocol
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A set of rules that governs data communication
It represents an agreement between the communicating devices
Internet layers
The TCP/IP protocol suite is made of 5 layers
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Layer
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A grouping of related tasks involving the transfer of information .
Each layer addresses an essential networking tasks
PEER-TO-PEER PROCESS
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Peer-to-peer processes
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Are the processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer
Between machines layer x communicates with layer x on another machine by protocols
Communication between machines is peer-to-peer processing using the protocols
appropriate to a given layer
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The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the
sending device and backup through the layers of the receiving device is made
possible by interface between each pair of adjacent layers
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Interface defines what info. and services a layer must provide for the layer above it
THE OSI MODEL
 Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. (theoretical model for networks of all
kinds)
 OSI reference model, drafted in late 1970s by ISO
 By 1983, the draft became ISO Standard 7498
 Common framework for developers and students of
networking to work with and learn from
 Attempt to develop a working set of protocols and technologies
based on the OSI model and to put those efforts into common
use never materialized
THE OSI MODEL
Model’s foundation
Networking can be separated into a series of related
tasks
Each task can be conceptualized as a single layer, of the
communication process
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Reduces complexity of networked communications into series
of interconnected tasks and activities
“Divide and conquer” approach: relationship among tasks
persists, but each can be handled separately, and its issues
solved independently
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Reference models and standards enable interoperability among layers
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Role of a Reference Model
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Computer networking, computer compatibility, and
networking features and functions can be daunting
concepts to grasp
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The OSI model and its seven-layer approach to networking provides
this common framework
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
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Communication between peer layers is “virtual”
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In reality, communications pass up and down the protocol stacks on both
machines
As data gets passed from layer to layer, it’s divided into data units
appropriate for the layer
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Protocol data units (PDUs) are passed as a self-contained data structure from
layer to layer
Encapsulation process adds “headers” to allow successful delivery of each layer’s
payload
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Decapsulation strips header information on way up
No layer can pass information directly to its peer counterpart except for the
Physical layer
Encapsulation Process
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
In this section we briefly describe the functions of each
layer in the OSI model.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Duties of the Physical layer
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Responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
 It defines the characteristic of the interface between devices and
media. It also define the type of transmission media
Representation of bits
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Data rate
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The bit stream must be encoded into signals. It defines the type of
representation ( how 0, 1 are changed to signal).
It defines the number of bits sent per second and also the duration
of bits
Synchronization of bits
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The sender and receiver must be use the same bit rate also the
receiver clock must be synchronized
Duties of the Physical layer
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Line configuration
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Physical topology
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Physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media ( point-to point or multipoint)
How devices connected to make a network
Devices can connected by using Star, mesh , bus, ring or hybrid
topology
Transmission mode
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It defines the direction of transmission between two devices
(simplex, half-duplex, or full duplex)
Duties of the data link layer
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Responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next
Framing
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Divide the stream of bits received from network layer into data units
called frames
Physical addressing
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Known also as the MAC or link address
Data Link Layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and
receiver of the frame.
If the frame for a system outside the sender’s network the receiver
address : is the address of the connecting device that connects the
network to next one (Router/switch).
Ethernet uses 6-bytes (48-bits) physical address that imprinted on the
NIC
Duties of the data link layer
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Flow control
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Error control
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It imposes a flow control mechanism , if the data rate at the receiver is
less than produced by sender the data link layer imposes a flow control
to avoid overwhelming the receiver
Add mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
Prevent also duplication of frames.
Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of
frame.
Access control
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When two or more devices than one devices are connected to the same
link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at given time
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
Example 2.1
A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address
87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the
computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.
 Most LANs use a (6-byte) physical address written as 12 Hex digit
 Every byte (2 Hex digits) is separated by a colon
 07:01:02:01:2C:4B
NETWORK LAYER
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Responsible from the delivery of packets from
the original source to the final destination
across multiple networks
If 2 systems are connected to the same link, there
is no need for network layer
Duties of network layer
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Logical addressing
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Routing
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Network layer adds unique ( IP or logical address) to the packet.
IP addresses are necessary for universal communications that are
independent of physical network
No two host address on the internet can have the same IP address
IP addresses 32-bit address that uniquely define a host connected to
the Internet
Provide the routing mechanism for the router which route the packet
to their final destination.
Routers: devices used when independent networks are connected to
create an internetworking ( network of networks)
Fragmentation
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Division of a packet into a smaller units to accommodate a protocols MTU
Fragmentation Offset
 A field in the IP header used to show relative position of the fragment with the
respect to the whole datagram
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
Example
 Each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has
only one pair of addresses (logical & physical )
 Each router, however, is connected to 3 networks, therefore; each router
has 3 pairs of addresses, 1 for each connection.
MAC addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses will not
TRANSPORT LAYER
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Responsible for delivery of a message from one process to
another
PDU is called segment
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Layer 4 problem is that segments might be too large for the medium between
the source and destination networks
The latter forces Network layer to fragment segments, which causes
performance degradation
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Duties of transport layer
Segmentation and reassembly
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A message is divided into small pieces (Segment)
Each segment containing sequence number. These number enable the
transport layer to reassemble the message correctly at destination and to
identify and replace segment that were lost in transmission.
Port addressing (Service-point addressing)
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Computer often run several process ( running programs) at the same time, so
the process to process delivery means delivery from a specific process on a
computer to specific process to the other.
The transport layer header must include Port address( 16-bit addresses
represented by decimal number range from 0-65535) to choose among multiple
processes on the destination host
Destination port No is needed for delivery
Source port no is needed for replay
Example
Port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal number
 Two PC communicating via the Internet.
 The sending PC is running 3 processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c.
 The receiving PC is running 2 processes at this time with port addresses j and k.
 Process a in the sending PC needs to communicate with process j in the receiving PC
Duties of transport layer
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Flow control
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Transport layer responsible for flow control end to end rather than
across a signal link
Error control
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Performed process-to-process rather than across a single link
The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives
at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss or
duplicated).
Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission
Duties of transport layer
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Connection control
The transport layer can be either
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Connection oriented
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Makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first
before delivering the packers.
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When the connection established a sequence of packets from source to the
destination can be sent one after another on the same path and in sequential order
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When all packets of message have been delivered, the connection is terminated
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This makes the sending transport layer ensure that the message arrives at the
receiving transport layer without error ( damage, loss or duplication)
Transmission control protocol(TCP)
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Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
2. Connection Less ( as Internet)
 It sends the data, but does not establish and verify a connection between hosts
before sending data
 Treats each packet independently, the packets in a message may or may not
travel the same path to their destination
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User datagram protocol (UDP)
Connection-less
Session layer
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It establishes, maintains and synchronize the interaction between communicating
system
Monitors session identification so that only designated parties can participate
Examples: name lookup and user logon and logoff
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E.g., DNS name resolution, FTP’s logon/logoff
Function
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Dialog control
 Allows two systems to enter into dialog
 It allows the communication between two processes to take place in either half-duplex or
full-duplex.
Synchronization
 It allows a process to add checkpoints into a stream of data
 So that if a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, the layer can
retransmit all data since the last checkpoint.
Presentation layer
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Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems
Functions
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Translation
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Encryption
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At the sender it changes the information from its
sender –dependent format into common format.
At receiving, changes the common format into its
receiver-dependent format
To ensure privacy and security
Compression
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Data compression reduces the number of bits contained
in the information.
It is important in the transmission of multimedia such
as audio or video
Application layer
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Set of interfaces to access networked services
Responsible for providing services to the user
 Mail services
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File transfer and access
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FTP : A protocol enable moving file across the network
Remote log-in
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SMTP: Simple mail transfer protocol used to send electronic mail on
the internet
Telnet: A service that enables users on the internet to log onto
remote systems from their own host system
Accessing the World Wide Web
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HTTP: Hyper text transfer protocol used for network file transfers in WWW
environment
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
Addresses in TCP/IP
e-mail addresses : ( [email protected]) to define the recipient of an e-mail
URL addresses ( www. Mhhe.com) to find a document on the world wide web
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP