Transcript Archetypes of Wisdom

Archetypes of Wisdom
Douglas J. Soccio
Chapter 4
The Wise Man: Socrates
Learning Objectives
On completion of this chapter, you should be able to
answer the following questions:
What is the “Socratic problem”?
What is a Paradigmatic Individual?
What is the Socratic Dialectic?
What role did Socrates’ ugliness play in his philosophy?
What role did Socrates’ poverty play in his philosophy?
What role does Socrates’ claim of ignorance play in the
philosophy?
What is Socratic irony?
Why did some Athenians think that Socrates was a Sophist?
What is Socratic Intellectualism?
The Socratic Problem
Although he is arguably the most enigmatic figure in the
history of Western philosophy, almost everything we know
about Socrates (c.470-399 B.C.E.) comes from two of his
students – Plato and Xenophon.
Since Socrates wrote no philosophy (only a few hymns and
verses), we have no first-hand account of his thoughts,
creating what W.K.C. Guthrie calls the “Socratic
problem.”
Guthrie says that in the end, “we must all have to some
extent our own Socrates” – meaning that each of us has to
decide for ourselves just what Socrates actually thought.
The General Character of
Socrates
One thing we do know is that Socrates was reputed to be
“less than attractive.” Perhaps for this reason, Socrates
claimed that the appearance of the body is less important
than how it functions. True beauty is the beauty of spirit
and character.
He said that the true self is not the body but the psyche – a
combination of what we think of as the mind and the soul.
Socrates believed that the human psyche is the essence of
humanness (or the essential aspect of being human), and
our capacity for conscious deliberation or reflective
thinking. The character of his own psyche was Socrates
greatest concern. And it showed in how he lived his life.
Barefoot in Athens
Socrates was usually barefoot and apparently had only one
tattered coat, about which his friends joked.
His enemies accused him of being “unwashed.”
One of Socrates’ most noted characteristics was his
hardiness, reflected in remarkable self-control, or
temperance.
In this sense, temperance is indifference to material
pleasures (not total abstinence or extreme asceticism).
Socrates’ Temperance
Socrates believed that “to have no wants is divine.”
In Xenophon’s Memorabilia, Socrates argues that selfcontrol – rather than the self-indulgence of satisfying all
desire – leads to pleasure.
Control of the self, or psyche, was Socrates’ chief pursuit
as he walked around Athens, without the material goods so
often pursued for the sake of happiness.
An Archetypal (or
Paradigmatic) Individual
Socrates is a genuine archetypal (or paradigmatic)
individual.
He is a rare human being whose very nature represents
something elemental about the human condition.
The philosopher and psychologist Karl Jaspers coined the
term paradigmatic individual to refer to a special class of
teachers, philosophers, and religious figures whose nature
becomes a standard by which a culture judges the “ideal”
human being.
An Archetypal Individual
Like Confucius, Buddha and Jesus, Socrates may be
considered such a paradigmatic individual.
Though such individuals may seem strange or unusual,
they are so in a way that is unsettling to our everyday
habits and values.
Socrates challenges us to question what we really know
and how we ought to live.
His own life becomes a “human paradigm,” an example for
us all.
The Teacher and His Teachings
Unlike the Sophists, Socrates was not paid to be a teacher,
and he did not claim to “teach” anyone (in the usual sense
of instruction). Instead, he asked questions and did his best
to answer the questions of others.
Socrates argued that one of the chief reasons many people
cannot think clearly is that they are not clear on what they
are talking about. So, the first order of business is to
“define our terms.”
As a result, definitions – just what something is, and what
makes it that – rather than a list of examples, are of
particular importance to Socrates.
Dialectic
Socrates’ method of inquiry differs from normal question
asking in that he assumes the function of education is to
draw the truth out of the pupil by guiding them, rather than
just “filling an empty vessel.”
This method is referred to as Socratic dialectic – two
speakers interacting to draw out the truth through the
process of “defining” what and how things are.
A vital aspect of Socratic teaching is the active
involvement of the students, hence the use of questions
rather than straight lectures.
Socratic Irony
A key element in keeping his pupils engaged was Socrates’
use of irony. An ironic utterance communicates on two
levels of meaning: a literal, or obvious, level and the
hidden, or real, level.
In his conversations with others, Socrates used irony to
suggest that there was something they could teach him,
when he was actually showing them that they did not
clearly understand themselves the things they claimed to
have knowledge about.
One example is in the Apology, where Socrates uses irony
to refer to the persuasive abilities of the Sophists who have
not persuaded him of anything.
Socrates at Work
His ironic manner often enraged others – as it did the
Sophist Thrasymachus (c.450 B.C.E.).
In a passage from The Republic, Thrasymachus bursts into
a discussion Socrates is having about the nature of justice.
Infuriated at how Socrates is making conventional notions
of morality seem, Thrasymachus tries to defend the Sophist
contention that “might makes right,” and that justice is
determined by “the interest of the strong.”
He claims that the unjust man always profits more than the
just man.
Socrates replies that the unjust man would not be happy in
the society he is creating, since others would act in similar
ways, and always be suspicious of him.
The Unexamined Life
Short-sighted mistakes like Thrasymachus’s show that
people do not think as much about things as they might.
Philosophical speculation is, therefore, not merely a
theoretical pursuit, but of great practical benefit, for it
helps us live better lives.
For Socrates, a life devoid of such speculation is
incomplete. If the psyche is not fully functional, such a
life is hardly human.
For that reason, Socrates claimed that “the unexamined life
is not worth living,” since what is most definitive about a
person is not functioning.
Socratic “Ignorance”
Socrates claimed not to have knowledge (another reason
for not being a “teacher”).
But legend has it that the Oracle of Delphi said, “No man
is wiser than Socrates.”
This means either that Socrates is the wisest man in Athens
or that he is as wise as anyone gets.
The first would make him unique; the second would make
him merely human.
To find out what the Oracle meant, and if what it had said
was true, Socrates spent his life talking to others – hoping
to find someone wiser.
Physician of the Soul
Socrates’ mission centered on his conviction that the “real
person” is not the body, but the psyche, so that seeking
one’s welfare is a matter of seeking the welfare of one’s
soul.
The excellent functioning of the soul is what Socrates
thought of as virtue (arete in Greek).
He believed that virtue is a special kind of knowledge that
combines technical understanding with the skill and
character to apply that knowledge.
For this, he used the Greek term techne, meaning the
practical knowledge of how to do things.
The Trial of Socrates
Socrates was motivated by what might be intellectualism,
that behavior is motivated by beliefs rather than desires.
That led him to ask many people about their beliefs, many
of whom unable to answer his questions and did not share
his intellectualism.
Since some of these people were in positions of authority,
Socrates’ questions were often embarrassing to them.
Thrasymachus had warned that “might makes right,” and
soon Socrates was on trial – accused of inventing new gods
and corrupting the youth of the city.
At the trial, he gave his honest defense against these
charges, recorded in Plato’s dialogue the Apology.
The Death of Socrates
Despite his efforts, Socrates was found guilty.
He waited a month for his execution, during which he
continued to pursue his philosophical questions.
Despite entreaties from his friends, and opportunity of
exile, Socrates refused to disobey the law by trying to
escape.
Genuinely concerned about his own soul, he was
determined to do the right thing. He had always expected
to die; the city had just changed the date.
He instructed his friend Crito to do with his body whatever
he thought best, bid everyone farewell, drank the hemlock
he was given, and died.
Know Thyself
Socrates’ concern to be a good person is admirable. But
continuing to philosophize even in the face of death makes
sense if we recall that psyche means both soul and mind.
Because Socrates thought of himself as his psyche, gaining
knowledge became the same thing as getting better at
being a person, or becoming a better person.
His motto “Know Thyself” amounts to the claim that
gaining knowledge or understanding – knowing oneself –
is an integral part of becoming a better person.
His concern for the welfare of his soul is then inextricably
linked to his desire for knowledge and his love of wisdom.
Discussion Questions
Imagine an encounter between Socrates and today’s
confident “sages” and professional advice-givers in the
media, government, and entertainment world. What would
Socrates say? How might contemporary sages respond?
Consider a modern-day sage such as television talk-show
host Dr. Phil. How do you think Dr. Phil would fare with
Socrates as a guest?
Chapter Review:
Key Concepts
Archetypal individual/paradigmatic individual
Socratic dialectic/Socratic method
Irony
Psyche
Virtue
techne
Intellectualism