Transcript The Crisis of the Third Century and Christianity`s Emergence as the

The Crisis of the Third Century
and
Rebound of the 300s
Circus Maximus
Arc of Titus, Rome
Tacitus
c. 56 – c.117
What conditions during his lifetime
influenced his perspective?
How would you characterize the gist of Tacitus’s
writing in both Agricola and Germania?
How would you characterize his approach,
perspective, and biases?
What value do we receive from his writings?
What were Tacitus’s biases?
A. He thought Romans were better than
barbarians
B. He thought civilization was a source of
freedom
C. He thought that the Emperors were
infalliable
D. All of the above
E. None of the above
What aspect of German culture
did Tacitus conspicuously praise?
A. Their constant activity and work ethic
B. Their faithfulness in marriage
C. Their desire to make money
D. Their literacy and eloquence in speech
Five Good Emperors
Emperor Trajan, 98-117
The Empire
During the Pax Romana
Marcus Aurelius
Emperor (161-180 CE)
and
Stoic Philosopher
Emperor
Commodus
180-192
Imperial
Instability
Emperor
Valerian
253-260
Diocletian
284-305 CE
Tetrarchy
Coins from Diocletian’s Reign
Constantine the
Great
ruled 306-337
Imperial Coins from 4th Century CE
The Empire c.400
Overview
• Causation for the decline of the Empire
–
–
–
–
Over-extension of imperial boundaries
Systemic Economic Weaknesses
Weaknesses in the Political Structure
Decline of the Imperial cult and traditional
Roman Religion
• Rebound: the reforms of Diocletian and
Constantine
Attempts to Ascertain the Causation
for the Decline of Rome
• Some of the “causes” identified (210 at last count)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
climatic changes
over-reliance on slavery
otherworldliness of Christianity
sexual orgies
ecological habits
lead poisoning
homosexuality
• None of these attracts consensus of serious
historians
Systemic Economic Weaknesses
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Huge military budget: 500,000 troops
High taxation
Absence of public debt
Structural trade deficit with the Far East
Debasement of coinage
Rampant inflation
Economy of plunder (booty)
– slaves
– gold, silver
– feeding the war machine
Demographic Collapse
• Constant Civil War during the early 200s
– Famine - crops destroyed or taken
– Plague - weakened immune systems
– decline of trade
• Depopulation
– especially in the western empire
– undermines urban basis of imperial rule
– weakened trade networks
• Downward Spiral
– despair
Weakening Political Structure
• ambiguous succession procedures
• political influence of the army
– the barracks emperors
• murder as a form of political advancement
• weakening of the imperial cult
–
–
–
–
shorter reigns
worthless coinage
competing claims
civil war
A Shift in Attitudes c. 250 CE
• Challenges to Perception of Roman Invincibility
and Destiny
• Incursions by
– Franks
– Alemani
– Goths
– Parthians
• Declining interest in Roman gods
• Declining prestige of Roman legions
Political Reforms of Diocletian
(285-305)
• Division of Empire into East and West
–
–
–
–
tetrarchy: planned succession
paves the way for the Byzantine Empire
temporarily restores order to the West
smaller administrative units to reduce power of
governors and army commanders
• Restoration and elevation of imperial cult
–
–
–
–
–
imperial title of dominus (lord)
emperor treated as divine
genuflection & prostration
imperial costume: purple robes, diadems
seclusion of the emperor
Economic “Reforms” of Diocletian
(285-305)
• taxes paid in kind to diminish effects of
inflation on imperial coffers
– the wealthy evaded taxes altogether through
loopholes to garner their support
• currency stabilization
• wage and price controls
– creation of black market economy
• hereditary occupations
– tax farmers and others necessarily passed their
occupation on to their sons
Constantine (306-337)
• Mother was Christian
• Grew up in the court of Diocletian and experienced
the persecution of Christians firsthand
• The “conversion” of Constantine c. 311
– the battle of Milvian Bridge
• “By this sign, you shall conquer”
– Edict of Milan (313): Christianity becomes legal in the
Empire
– only received baptism by Arian priest on his deathbed in
337
• Gains control of western Empire 313 and Eastern half
by 324
Reforms of Constantine (306-337)
• Encourages Christianity
–
–
–
–
the emperor becomes God’s best friend
official persecution of Christians ends
Church authorized to enforce morality
Church exempt from taxation and the recipient of imperial
favors
• Imperial court relocated to Constantinople (325)
• Council of Nicaea (325)
– orthodoxy defined - Nicaean Creed
– rejection of Arianism
– affirmation of Church and episcopal hierarchy
Christianity in the Fourth Century
• From persecution to state religion
– Constantine initiates the transformation
– Church adopts Roman judicial and administrative
structure; a state within the state
– 325 the Council of Nicaea
• The Nicean Crede
• Persecuton of Heresy
– Gradual elimination of pagan temples
– Rome becomes more of a religious than political
focal point
– Theodosious adopts Christianity as the imperial
religion c. 390
– by late 300s, persecution of pagans
Summary
• The Roman Empire operated on an economy of
plunder; it required plunder in order to generate
wealth for the elite
• Consequently the Romans continued to expand the
Empire, despite the warning from Augustus
• By the Late 2nd century the cost of maintaining the
imperial borders had exceeded the Romans’ ability
to support such a massive military
• Increasingly the Romans relied on barbarian
mercenaries and others to defend the empire
Summary
• A series of violent and incompetent Emperors in the
late second century triggered a downward spiral of
civil war that lasted for approximately 70 years
• These civil wars disrupted the economic,
demographic, and cultural foundations of the Empire
• Shaken by the increasing instability, many Romans
found comfort in the teachings of the Christians
• Diocletian restored imperial order and persecuted
Christians
• Constantine continued the consolidation of power
and embraced Christianity
How did Tacitus collect
information about the Germans?
How did Tacitus connect the land and
climate to the culture of the Germans?
What values did Tacitus admire
among the Germans?