Transcript Analisi dell’ epigrafe “Lex De Imperii Vespasiani”

Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca
Istituto di istruzione secondaria
Liceo Scientifico statale “Plinio Seniore”
Via Montebello 122- 00185 Roma
Tel 064464507 Fax 064452945
[email protected]
“BECOMING A GUIDE IN THE ANCIENT ROME”
The work has been produced by the class III B
Liceo Scientifico “Plinio Seniore”
The students have been monitored by teachers: Mrs Daiana
Fuccellara e Mr Galliano Maria Speri
ANNO SCOLASTICO 2011-2012
ROMAN FORUM
At the beginning the Roman Forum
was a valley, situated between the
Palatine Hill and the Capitoline hill
where a lot of tributaries of the Tiber
flowed. On this hills there where a lot
of small agricultural and pastoral
villages that used the valley as a
cimitery. Under king Tarquinio Prisco
it was created the Cloaca Maxima
that drained all the valley and the
Roman Forum was built.
The Forum was considered by the
Romans as a political, administrative,
judicial and commercial centre. This
place goes from the Arch of Titus to
the Tabularium. The meeting square
was used for political and judicial
activites, while behind it there where
the commercial activities. From the VIVII A.D. the Arch of Titus was used as a
part of the fortifications of the
Frangipane, a powerful family of the
period. In the XVIII century the
architect Valadier decided to restore it
but he used travertine instead of
pentelic marble, because in that time
the architects always used a different
material.
THE CONDITION OF ROMAN FORUM
The Forum at the end of empire: some pagan temples
could survive because they were transformed into
churches, such as the temple of Romulus, who was
replaced by the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda and
the bronze door is the original of the Diocletian
period. Many other relics from Roman antiquity were
re-used in medieval churches and in this way they
have been preserved. In the Middle Ages there was a
different fate for other monuments that were
destroyed because the Forum was used as pasture for
domestic animals and as arable land, in fact its name
would have become "Campo Vaccino", a place where
cows grazed and the territory left free from this
activity was used by important families to build their
mansions.
For centuries, the Forum was used as a kind of
cheap source from which it was taken whatever
building material was necessary. In fact, giving the
almost total absence of commerce, it was the only
possibility to obtain marbles, a very expensive
material. During its golden age, the Roman Empire
controlled the marble trade; these marbles were
brought from far away and were landed at Ostia
and then processed at the center of the empire;
however, the availability of marble was scarce and
so many of these ancient monuments adorned with
marbles were plundered and re-used in other
buildings. This use of the Forum’s monuments
continued even during the Renaissance because of
various popes’ willingness to rebuild Rome: an
example is Pope Julius III (1503-1513) who decided
to use the entire area as a quarry of materials for
re-use. In many cases, precious marbles were
transformed into lime; even splendid sculptures
ended up that way. The greatest destruction took
place between 1540 and 1550, when work picked
up on the building of the Basilica of St Peter. The
destruction of the monuments was fast: sometimes
a single month was enough to demolish almost
intact buildings.
THE PLUNDERING AND THE REUSE OF THE FORUM’S STRUCTURE
An example of re-use of the Forum in Medieval structures, is the porch of the Middle
Ages (1200), where we can see the different soil layers indicating different ages of reuse. At the time of Charlemagne (IX century), the valley of the Forum and Rome were
marred by a very strong earthquake and a flooding of the Tiber, which covered many
ruins. Until the end of XIX century all the ruins were not visible, so almost no one
knew anything about the Roman Forum. It was only in the late XIX century that
interest revived in a more scholarly approach to Roman antiquity, but it was only after
the Unification of Italy that major excavations were conducted in the Forum. The
leading archaeologists were Pietro Rosa, Giuseppe Fiorelli, Rodolfo Lanciani and
Giacomo Boni, scholars to whom Roman archaeology is deeply indebted. Giacomo
Boni, in particular, decided to undertake an extensive excavation terminating it in a
few years (1898-1903). He discovered many previously unknown things, including a
burial ground containing Archaic tombs of the IX century BC, before the founding of
the city.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE FORUM
The Roman Forum was used for political meetings, for commercial purposes and also for
religious functions. In the Forum there are several churches that during the years have
been reconstructed, one of those is the Basilica Emilia. The Basilica Emilia was the square
of the Roman Forum and had a commercial function but also possessed the characteristic
of being covered. The Basilica Emilia derives from Greek structures has a rectangular plane
full of columns that support the roof. The interior spaces of the columns are called naves,
which later became the naves of churches, in fact the Christian basilicas take over the
structures of the classical Roman basilica. The Basilica Emilia is the oldest of the Forum. In
the Forum there is also the Basilica Julia, which was built by Julius Caesar; originally, there
were other more ancient basilicas, but they were destroyed and replaced by these latter
ones. We also find the remains of the Temple of Deified Julius, which was built by Augustus
in 44 BC following the death of Caesar, who was killed in the Curia which, at that time, was
not in the Roman Forum because the old structure was under renovation.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE FORUM
The Curia was hosted in the Comitium, an early assembly area that preceded
the Forum, where the 300 members of the senate met. In that an open place
were taken the most important decisions of the State. Meetings with foreign
delegations also took place in the Curia which was the real political center of
the Eternal City. The Comitium has had several phases. Originally it was a
temple, i.e. a place that had been consecrated, had its margins and limits,
within that limit, the area was sacred. It was built as a temple of rectangular
base, as all Italic buildings, and was oriented according to cardinal points.
Formerly, the Curia was in the north peak of the Comitium. The first was the
Curia Ostilia built by Tullius Ostilius (third king of Rome). When Caesar became
an extremely powerful man he could change the conception of Rome and put
an end to the Republican era. He built his own Forum (Caesar's Forum), which
was started in 54 BC and was inaugurated in 46 BC. It proved very expensive
but that was not a problem for Caesar who was rich with the booty coming
from the Gallic Wars. Later, after Caesar made ​his forum, many emperors, like
Trajan, Augustus and Nerva built their own forums.
THE REGIA IN ANCIENT ROME
The Regia was a structure in Ancient Rome in the Roman Forum that originally
functioned as the residence or one of the main headquarters of the kings of
Rome and later as the office of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Roman
religion. It occupied a triangular patch of terrain between the Temple of Vesta,
the Temple of the Deified Julius and the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina.
Only the foundations of Republican/Imperial Regia remain. Like the Curia, it
was destroyed and rebuilt several times, as far back as the Roman monarchy.
Studies have found multiple layers of similar buildings with more regular
features, prompting the theory that this "Republican Regia" was to have a
different use.
THE LAPIS NIGER
The Lapis Niger (Latin, "Black Stone") is an
ancient shrine in the Roman Forum.
Together with the associated Vulcanal (a
sanctuary to Vulcan) it constitutes the only
surviving remnant of the old Comitium, an
early assembly area that preceded the
Forum and is thought to derive from an
archaic cult site of the VII or VIII century BC.
The black marble paving (I century BC) and
modern concrete enclosure (early XX
century) of the Lapis Niger overlie an
ancient tomb or altar and a stone block with
one of the earliest known Latin inscriptions
(ca. 570–550 BC). The superstructure
monument and shrine may have been built
by Julius Caesar during his reorganization of
the Forum and Comitium space.
Alternatively, this may have been done a generation earlier by
Sulla during one of his construction projects around the Curia
Hostilia. The site was rediscovered and excavated from 1899 to
1905 by Italian archaeologist Giacomo Boni.
The arch of Titus
The arch of Titus is a triumphal arch with a
single arch, situated on the northern of the
Palatine. It dates back to 81 B.C. and was built
by Domitian in memory of the Jewish war
waged by Titus in Galilee. For some centuries it
was part of the sacred way, a road that was
used by the army each time they returned
from victorious battles. This march started
from the Foro Boario, passed for the Roman
Forum and finally arrived at the temple of
Giove Capitolino, located on the Capitol hill.
On the trabeation there is a frieze
rappresenting scenes from the Jewish wa
the rich booty consisting of all valuables,
sacred symbols of that culture, there are
the seven branched candle stick (menora
and the typical silver trumpets. On a reli
may also notice the insigns displayed by t
soldiers, witch were painted scenes of th
battle.
MAMERTINE PRISON OR
TULLIANUM
The Mamertine prison is the most ancient prison of the Ancient Rome and is located in the
Roman Forum.
The structure of the Mamertine prison is composed by:
.Church of St. Joseph of the Carpenters
.Chapel of the Holy Cross
.Prison
.Tullianum
The Tullianum was built in the VII century BC, during the reign of Ancus Martius even if it was
named after Servius Tullius or Tullius Ostilius.
The Christianization of the building is dated around the VIII century AD. A fresco, representing
God’s blessing hand and a part of halo, found in the Tullianum, was painted in that period.
There is a stair that brings to the ancient level. The facade, made of blocks of travertine, was
realized during the early imperial age and has got a frame with the names of consuls Rufinius
and Nerva. This facade covers an older one.
MAMERTINE PRISON OR
TULLIANUM
FRESCOES
In the upper floor there are some frescoes, dating to different periods; one of
these is made of different layers. Its original painting represents St. Peter and St.
Paul, while the second layer represents Jesus who crowns them. On the same wall
there is another fresco (1250) representing the Vergin Mary that hugs the
believers with her red cloak; they don’t look at her. Instead they look at the Saints
in the other picture. On the upper right corner we can see a church, as we
understand thanks to its bell tower.
A Medieval legend tells that St. Peter, going down to the Tullianum, fell hitting
the wall, thus leaving the imprint of is head in the stone (the imprint, from 1720,
is protected by a grille). According to a legend, St. Peter and St. Paul, imprisoned
in the dungeon with other followers of Christ, made a spring of water
miraculously appear and were able to convert and baptize the guards of the
prison, Processus and Martianus, who became martyrs themselves. The name
“mamertine” may be a reference to “Mamers” the ancient name of Mars, or to
the name of the Roman King Ancus Martius.
The term city-state,
which is also frequently used
in school textbooks, in reality
cannot be referred to the Roman
civilization because this concept also
implies a division of powers, which was
inconceivable for the empire. So it often
happens that, because of those mistakes,
we build up completely wrong images
about the ancient Roman population.
Bronze plate with Lex de imperio
Vespasiani
69-70 AD
This inscription is called Lex de Imperio
Vespasiani. But this name is modern and it was
assigned by modern scholars on the basis of
the specific content of this law. It should
appear at the beginning of the inscription, as a
kind of title, but it doesn’t . The content is
presented immediately: scholars think that this
is the law that in 69 A.D. assigned the
imperium, or the power to rule Rome and its
districts, to emperor Vespasian, who was the
first exponent of the Flavian dynasty.
This law is inscribed on a bronze plate in the
Capitoline Museums and it is dated 69 A.D.
The interpretation of the text is not univocal,
both because the law is fragmentary and it is
the unique example of lex regia we posses
today. It is not known if there were other
examples of such laws. According to some
scholars, the possibile existence of other
similar laws for the investiture of the emperors
of the Gens Julia dynasty would completely
change the value of the present law. For this
reason we can only make hypotheses.
It is considered a problematic law, because
scholars are divided into “historians” and
“jurists”. The so-called historians believe that
this law has introduced new powers, that
emperors before Vespasian did not have.
Jurists state, on the contrary, that this law does
not introduce any new power but simply
regulates the powers that emperors had
before Vespasian.
The lex is made up of eight clauses and one sanctio.
The content of the clauses can be summarized in the following way:
I Clause: the power to stipulate foedera and to declare war and peace;
II Clause: the power to summon and preside over the Senate, to issue the relatio, and to vote
over the senatus consulta;
III Clause: it ratifies the legitimacy of the Senate meetings called by the princeps;
IV Clause: power of commendatio and suffragatio of the princeps;
V Clause: power to extend the pomerium;
VI Clause: right and power to implement whatever the prince finds useful for the res publica;
VII Clause: it provides that Vespasian is exonerated from the laws;
VIII Clause: it sanctions the validity of the acts made by Vespasian or by others under his
command, before the approval of the lex de imperio;
The law ends with the sanctio, a typical part of all the republican laws and from which the
Italian term sanzione derives (but its modern meaning is different from the old one). In fact,
the sanctio had the function to protect those who violated the old laws to abide the new one.
The so-called clause with precedents (I, II, V, VI, VII)
when are named the emperors of the Gens Julia
dynasty (Augustus, Tiberius and Claudius, Caligula and
Nero are not mentioned because hit by the damnatio
memoriae).
- The clauses without precedents (III, IV, VIII), when
only the name of Vespasian appears.
In the epigraph we can distinguish two kinds of clauses:
the ones with precedents and the ones without them,
even if in reality some of the latter had some precedents
(i.e. Clause III, concerning the legitimacy of the Senate
meetings, had some precedents under Augustus).
Every epigraph, both written or from some source, can be interpreted in many ways,
mainly because we do not know which were the contemporary texts. For example,
the meaning of the law of Vespasian would have had a different meaning if there
were also other similar texts, but we have no knowledge about it so we can simply
make hypotheses.
Scholars do not agree on the implications of the law.
According to historians, the clauses without precedents
introduced new powers that the predecessors of Vespasian
did not have. Such powers were related to the particular
historical moment. Vespasian is acclaimed emperor after
the longus et unus annus and he is homo novus, who does
not belong to the Gens Julia and not even to the Roman
nobilitas.
On the contrary, jurists state that this law does not introduce any new power but simply
regulates the effects of the acts of the princeps. The legitimacy of the meetings of the
Senate summoned by the emperor and the habit of commendare and suffragationem
dare (that is to offer electoral help to the candidates chosen by the emperor) are referred
to, respectively, clauses III and IV and the ratification of the acts made by Vespasian
before the coming into force of the lex de imperio, refer to already existing situations and
powers, in some cases (clause IV), even in republican times. The three clauses have in
common the fact that they regulate the effects of the acts done by the emperor.
The students of IIIB are:
Giovanni Brajato, Sara Breccia, Marco Buttò, Pierpaolo De Bonis, Alessandro De Iure,
Michela Costanzo, Silvia Fiorucci, Pietro Grasso, Loffredo Sofia, Alex Daniel Ludena
Cerro, Ciro Marinelli, Laura Melinelli, Francesca Moriconi, Nadia Pencheva, Matteo
Petrucci, Edoardo Santoni, Francesca Speranza, Anna Tagliaferri, Andrea Trivellini,
Marco Visconti.
The teacher Mrs Daiana Fuccellara e Mr Galliano Maria Speri gave the opportunity to
show the importance of this work in the Liceo Agios Giorgios Leoforos in Larnaca
(Cyprus), during the cultural exchange among the students.