Transcript NV, n, o, i, r

Qualitative Research
Making Comparisons and
Building and Testing Models
Gery W. Ryan
RAND Corporation
&
Tracy Van Holt
East Carolina University
The Basics of Qualitative Analysis
•
•
•
•
•
Identifying themes
Building and applying codebooks
Describing themes
Make comparisons
Building and testing models
Comparisons
• What is being compared?
– Units of Analysis (ROWS)
• What dimensions are being used to make the comparisons
– Dimensions of Comparisons (COLUMNS)
• Unidimensional comparisons (1 column)
• Bivariate comparisons (2 columns)
• Multivariate comparisons (multi-columns)
• How will similarities and differences be measured on each of these
dimensions?
– Levels of measurement (CELLS)
• Nonvariable (Text)
• Variable
– Nominal (Lists of categories)
– Ordinal
– Interval or ratio
• What levels of aggregation are you using
– Pairwise
– Within-group
– Cross-group
Comparisons
Dimensions of Comparison
Levels of
Aggregation
Unidimensional
Bidimensional
Multidimensional
Pairwise
I
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IV
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Within-Group
II
(nv, n, o, i, r)
V
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VIII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Cross-Group
III
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VI
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IX
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Levels of Measurement: nv=nonvariable, n=nominal, o=ordinal, i=interval, r=ratio
Comparisons
Dimensions of Comparison
Levels of
Aggregation
Unidimensional
Pairwise
I
(NV, n, o, i, r)
Bidimensional
Multidimensional
IV
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Within-Group
II
(nv, n, o, i, r)
V
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VIII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Cross-Group
III
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VI
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IX
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Levels of Measurement: nv=nonvariable, n=nominal, o=ordinal, i=interval, r=ratio
Comparisons
ID Sex
Description
Diag.
Concern
Total
Worst
Dur.
32 F
Tired, aching, running nose, stuffed nose, sneezing, coughing, difficulty sleeping,
uncomfortableness, sore throat--lots of Kleenex
Cold
Yes
3
7
14
47 F
It was February and I came down with a cold. Just a sore throat, achy body, and a cough. Felt
like sleeping all the time and didn't feel like eating anything unless it was salty. It took a week
or a week and a half to get over.
Cold
No
1
2
10
17 F
The last time I had the flu I was VERY ill. It began at my head and arms and swept down my
body in a big ache. All my muscles were sore, I felt like I was dying. I think I had fever
blisters in my mouth, I had a sore throat, but did not lose my appetite nor was I sick to my
stomach. I just remember being laid out on our sofa for 3 days, every muscle in my body
aching like I’d been beat up or through severe athletic training. The whole episode lasted
around 7 days.
Flu
Yes
7
9
7
… F
…
…
…
…
…
…
18 M
Headache--throbbing in temples--moved around head. Cough--hacking--sometimes--phlegm.
Congestion--in sinuses and rib cage. Labored breathing--reduction of 20-10 airflow, tight
chest. Fatigue--strong desire to sleep and nap. --did not do activities running and going to
gym for day to day and a half --felt weak and did not have desire to do much --could not
concentrate--bad headache and a little stressed.
Cold
No
4
4
3.5
15 M
The last time I had a cold/flu was in Feb 98. I laid in bed for 2 days with a headache, a
stomach ache, fever, body pain. I had spells of dizziness and nausea. I pretty much slept for
most of 48 hr. I was still tired and worn out for a couple of days beyond the initial illness.
Flu
No
5
4
3
24 M
I had the flu 5 months ago. I was always tired and it was hard to think straight. At some
points though I actually kind of enjoyed it. No one expected much out of you. I don’’t know
if it was the medicine or the fever, but at times I felt like I had a buzz. Of course I had all the
common symptoms. I would wake up at night either sweating my ass off or shaking horribly
from being so incredibly cold. I remember one night I was so cold and shaking so bad it woke
my roommate up because I was shaking the bunk beds. He was not cold at all.
Flu
No
7
9
14
… M
…
…
…
…
…
…
Comparisons
Dimensions of Comparison
Levels of
Aggregation
Pairwise
Within-Group
Cross-Group
Unidimensional
Bidimensional
Multidimensional
I
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IV
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
V
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VIII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VI
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IX
(nv, n, o, i, r)
II
(NV, n, o, i, r)
III
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Levels of Measurement: nv=nonvariable, n=nominal, o=ordinal, i=interval, r=ratio
Comparisons
ID Sex
Description
Diag.
Concern
Total
Worst
Dur.
32 F
Tired, aching, running nose, stuffed nose, sneezing, coughing, difficulty sleeping,
uncomfortableness, sore throat--lots of Kleenex
Cold
Yes
3
7
14
47 F
It was February and I came down with a cold. Just a sore throat, achy body, and a cough. Felt
like sleeping all the time and didn't feel like eating anything unless it was salty. It took a week
or a week and a half to get over.
Cold
No
1
2
10
18 M
Headache--throbbing in temples--moved around head. Cough--hacking--sometimes--phlegm.
Congestion--in sinuses and rib cage. Labored breathing--reduction of 20-10 airflow, tight
chest. Fatigue--strong desire to sleep and nap. --did not do activities running and going to
gym for day to day and a half --felt weak and did not have desire to do much --could not
concentrate--bad headache and a little stressed.
Cold
No
4
4
3.5
… …
…
Cold
…
…
…
…
17 F
The last time I had the flu I was VERY ill. It began at my head and arms and swept down my
body in a big ache. All my muscles were sore, I felt like I was dying. I think I had fever
blisters in my mouth, I had a sore throat, but did not lose my appetite nor was I sick to my
stomach. I just remember being laid out on our sofa for 3 days, every muscle in my body
aching like I’d been beat up or through severe athletic training. The whole episode lasted
around 7 days.
Flu
Yes
7
9
7
15 M
The last time I had a cold/flu was in Feb 98. I laid in bed for 2 days with a headache, a
stomach ache, fever, body pain. I had spells of dizziness and nausea. I pretty much slept for
most of 48 hr. I was still tired and worn out for a couple of days beyond the initial illness.
Flu
No
5
4
3
24 M
I had the flu 5 months ago. I was always tired and it was hard to think straight. At some
points though I actually kind of enjoyed it. No one expected much out of you. I don’’t know
if it was the medicine or the fever, but at times I felt like I had a buzz. Of course I had all the
common symptoms. I would wake up at night either sweating my ass off or shaking horribly
from being so incredibly cold. I remember one night I was so cold and shaking so bad it woke
my roommate up because I was shaking the bunk beds. He was not cold at all.
Flu
No
7
9
14
… …
…
Flu
…
…
…
…
Comparisons
Dimensions of Comparison
Levels of
Aggregation
Unidimensional
Bidimensional
Multidimensional
Pairwise
I
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IV
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Within-Group
II
(nv, n, o, i, r)
V
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VIII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VI
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IX
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Cross-Group
III
(NV, n, o, i, r)
Levels of Measurement: nv=nonvariable, n=nominal, o=ordinal, i=interval, r=ratio
Comparisons
ID Sex
Description
Diag.
Concern
Total
Worst
Dur.
32 F
Tired, aching, running nose, stuffed nose, sneezing, coughing, difficulty sleeping,
uncomfortableness, sore throat--lots of Kleenex
Cold
1
3
7
14
47 F
It was February and I came down with a cold. Just a sore throat, achy body, and a cough. Felt
like sleeping all the time and didn't feel like eating anything unless it was salty. It took a week
or a week and a half to get over.
Cold
Yes
1
2
10
18 M
Headache--throbbing in temples--moved around head. Cough--hacking--sometimes--phlegm.
Congestion--in sinuses and rib cage. Labored breathing--reduction of 20-10 airflow, tight
chest. Fatigue--strong desire to sleep and nap. --did not do activities running and going to
gym for day to day and a half --felt weak and did not have desire to do much --could not
concentrate--bad headache and a little stressed.
Cold
No
4
4
3.5
… …
…
Cold
…
…
…
…
17 F
The last time I had the flu I was VERY ill. It began at my head and arms and swept down my
body in a big ache. All my muscles were sore, I felt like I was dying. I think I had fever
blisters in my mouth, I had a sore throat, but did not lose my appetite nor was I sick to my
stomach. I just remember being laid out on our sofa for 3 days, every muscle in my body
aching like I’d been beat up or through severe athletic training. The whole episode lasted
around 7 days.
Flu
No
7
9
7
15 M
The last time I had a cold/flu was in Feb 98. I laid in bed for 2 days with a headache, a
stomach ache, fever, body pain. I had spells of dizziness and nausea. I pretty much slept for
most of 48 hr. I was still tired and worn out for a couple of days beyond the initial illness.
Flu
No
5
4
3
24 M
I had the flu 5 months ago. I was always tired and it was hard to think straight. At some
points though I actually kind of enjoyed it. No one expected much out of you. I don’’t know
if it was the medicine or the fever, but at times I felt like I had a buzz. Of course I had all the
common symptoms. I would wake up at night either sweating my ass off or shaking horribly
from being so incredibly cold. I remember one night I was so cold and shaking so bad it woke
my roommate up because I was shaking the bunk beds. He was not cold at all.
Flu
No
7
9
14
… …
…
Flu
…
…
…
…
Comparisons
Dimensions of Comparison
Levels of
Aggregation
Pairwise
Unidimensional
Bidimensional
Multidimensional
I
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IV
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Within-Group
II
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Cross-Group
III
(nv, n, o, i, r)
V
(nv, n, O, i, r)
VI
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VIII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IX
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Levels of Measurement: nv=nonvariable, n=nominal, o=ordinal, i=interval, r=ratio
Comparisons
ID Sex
Description
Diag.
Concern
Total
Worst
Dur.
47 F
It was February and I came down with a cold. Just a sore throat, achy body, and a cough. Felt
like sleeping all the time and didn't feel like eating anything unless it was salty. It took a week
or a week and a half to get over.
Cold
No
1
2
10
32 F
Tired, aching, running nose, stuffed nose, sneezing, coughing, difficulty sleeping,
uncomfortableness, sore throat--lots of Kleenex
Cold
Yes
3
7
14
18 M
Headache--throbbing in temples--moved around head. Cough--hacking--sometimes--phlegm.
Congestion--in sinuses and rib cage. Labored breathing--reduction of 20-10 airflow, tight
chest. Fatigue--strong desire to sleep and nap. --did not do activities running and going to
gym for day to day and a half --felt weak and did not have desire to do much --could not
concentrate--bad headache and a little stressed.
Cold
No
4
4
3.5
… …
…
Cold
…
…
…
…
15 M
The last time I had a cold/flu was in Feb 98. I laid in bed for 2 days with a headache, a
stomach ache, fever, body pain. I had spells of dizziness and nausea. I pretty much slept for
most of 48 hr. I was still tired and worn out for a couple of days beyond the initial illness.
Flu
No
5
4
3
17 F
The last time I had the flu I was VERY ill. It began at my head and arms and swept down my
body in a big ache. All my muscles were sore, I felt like I was dying. I think I had fever
blisters in my mouth, I had a sore throat, but did not lose my appetite nor was I sick to my
stomach. I just remember being laid out on our sofa for 3 days, every muscle in my body
aching like I’d been beat up or through severe athletic training. The whole episode lasted
around 7 days.
Flu
Yes
7
9
7
24 M
I had the flu 5 months ago. I was always tired and it was hard to think straight. At some
points though I actually kind of enjoyed it. No one expected much out of you. I don’’t know
if it was the medicine or the fever, but at times I felt like I had a buzz. Of course I had all the
common symptoms. I would wake up at night either sweating my ass off or shaking horribly
from being so incredibly cold. I remember one night I was so cold and shaking so bad it woke
my roommate up because I was shaking the bunk beds. He was not cold at all.
Flu
No
7
9
14
… …
…
Flu
…
…
…
…
Comparisons
Dimensions of Comparison
Levels of
Aggregation
Unidimensional
Bidimensional
Multidimensional
Pairwise
I
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IV
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Within-Group
II
(nv, n, o, i, r)
V
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VIII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Cross-Group
III
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VI
(nv, n, O, i, r)
IX
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Levels of Measurement: nv=nonvariable, n=nominal, o=ordinal, i=interval, r=ratio
Comparisons
ID Sex
Description
Diag.
Concern
Total
Worst
Dur.
47 F
It was February and I came down with a cold. Just a sore throat, achy body, and a cough. Felt
like sleeping all the time and didn't feel like eating anything unless it was salty. It took a week
or a week and a half to get over.
Cold
No
1
2
10
32 F
Tired, aching, running nose, stuffed nose, sneezing, coughing, difficulty sleeping,
uncomfortableness, sore throat--lots of Kleenex
Cold
Yes
3
7
14
18 M
Headache--throbbing in temples--moved around head. Cough--hacking--sometimes--phlegm.
Congestion--in sinuses and rib cage. Labored breathing--reduction of 20-10 airflow, tight
chest. Fatigue--strong desire to sleep and nap. --did not do activities running and going to
gym for day to day and a half --felt weak and did not have desire to do much --could not
concentrate--bad headache and a little stressed.
Cold
No
4
4
3.5
… …
…
Cold
…
…
…
…
15 M
The last time I had a cold/flu was in Feb 98. I laid in bed for 2 days with a headache, a
stomach ache, fever, body pain. I had spells of dizziness and nausea. I pretty much slept for
most of 48 hr. I was still tired and worn out for a couple of days beyond the initial illness.
Flu
No
5
4
3
17 F
The last time I had the flu I was VERY ill. It began at my head and arms and swept down my
body in a big ache. All my muscles were sore, I felt like I was dying. I think I had fever
blisters in my mouth, I had a sore throat, but did not lose my appetite nor was I sick to my
stomach. I just remember being laid out on our sofa for 3 days, every muscle in my body
aching like I’d been beat up or through severe athletic training. The whole episode lasted
around 7 days.
Flu
Yes
7
9
7
24 M
I had the flu 5 months ago. I was always tired and it was hard to think straight. At some
points though I actually kind of enjoyed it. No one expected much out of you. I don’’t know
if it was the medicine or the fever, but at times I felt like I had a buzz. Of course I had all the
common symptoms. I would wake up at night either sweating my ass off or shaking horribly
from being so incredibly cold. I remember one night I was so cold and shaking so bad it woke
my roommate up because I was shaking the bunk beds. He was not cold at all.
Flu
No
7
9
14
… …
…
Flu
…
…
…
…
Comparisons
Dimensions of Comparison
Levels of
Aggregation
Unidimensional
Bidimensional
Multidimensional
Pairwise
I
(nv, n, o, i, r)
IV
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Within-Group
II
(nv, n, o, i, r)
V
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VIII
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Cross-Group
III
(nv, n, o, i, r)
VI
(nv, N, o, i, r)
IX
(nv, n, o, i, r)
Levels of Measurement: nv=nonvariable, n=nominal, o=ordinal, i=interval, r=ratio
Comparisons
ID Sex
Description
Diag.
Concern
Total
Worst
Dur.
32 F
Tired, aching, running nose, stuffed nose, sneezing, coughing, difficulty sleeping,
uncomfortableness, sore throat--lots of Kleenex
Cold
Yes
3
7
14
47 F
It was February and I came down with a cold. Just a sore throat, achy body, and a cough. Felt
like sleeping all the time and didn't feel like eating anything unless it was salty. It took a week
or a week and a half to get over.
Cold
No
1
2
10
18 M
Headache--throbbing in temples--moved around head. Cough--hacking--sometimes--phlegm.
Congestion--in sinuses and rib cage. Labored breathing--reduction of 20-10 airflow, tight
chest. Fatigue--strong desire to sleep and nap. --did not do activities running and going to
gym for day to day and a half --felt weak and did not have desire to do much --could not
concentrate--bad headache and a little stressed.
Cold
No
4
4
3.5
… …
…
Cold
…
…
…
…
17 F
The last time I had the flu I was VERY ill. It began at my head and arms and swept down my
body in a big ache. All my muscles were sore, I felt like I was dying. I think I had fever
blisters in my mouth, I had a sore throat, but did not lose my appetite nor was I sick to my
stomach. I just remember being laid out on our sofa for 3 days, every muscle in my body
aching like I’d been beat up or through severe athletic training. The whole episode lasted
around 7 days.
Flu
Yes
7
9
7
15 M
The last time I had a cold/flu was in Feb 98. I laid in bed for 2 days with a headache, a
stomach ache, fever, body pain. I had spells of dizziness and nausea. I pretty much slept for
most of 48 hr. I was still tired and worn out for a couple of days beyond the initial illness.
Flu
No
5
4
3
24 M
I had the flu 5 months ago. I was always tired and it was hard to think straight. At some
points though I actually kind of enjoyed it. No one expected much out of you. I don’’t know
if it was the medicine or the fever, but at times I felt like I had a buzz. Of course I had all the
common symptoms. I would wake up at night either sweating my ass off or shaking horribly
from being so incredibly cold. I remember one night I was so cold and shaking so bad it woke
my roommate up because I was shaking the bunk beds. He was not cold at all.
Flu
No
7
9
14
… …
…
Flu
…
…
…
…
Bi-dimensional Comparisons of Two Nominal
Dimensions Using Entire Sample (N=60)
Concern
Diagnosis
Yes
No
Total
Freq
%
Freq
%
Freq
Cold
6
14.0
37
86.0
43
Flu
8
47.1
9
52.9
17
Total
14
23.3
46
76.7
60
The Basics of Qualitative Analysis
•
•
•
•
•
Identifying themes
Building and applying codebooks
Describing themes
Make comparisons
Building and testing models
Models
• What is a model?
– A set of constructs and the linkages among them
• How do build models?
– Identify constructs
– Identify key constructs
– Link key constructs
• Compare and contrast
• Use meta frameworks
• Look for specific types of relationships
– E.g. part-to-whole, conditional relationships (if-then, instead of), attributes, etc.
• How can you ensure that the model represents the data?
– Negative case analysis
– Formal tests
– Model validation (Emic & Etic)
• How can you display models?
–
–
–
–
–
Thick description
Concept maps (boxes and arrows)
Charts and graphs
Tables
Statistical models
Other Features of Models
• Scope
– Ideographic (particular)
– Nomothetic (general)
• Kinds of concepts
– Variable models (independent/dependent)
– Non-variable models
• Kinds of linkages
– Deterministic (i.e., Boolean logic)
– Semantic (e.g., isa, causes, comes before, eats, has sex with, etc.)
– Probabilistic Models
• Time
– Synchronic-snapshot in time
– Diachronic-over time
• Use
– Descriptive
– Predictive
Examples of Models
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Contextual
Process
Interactive Event
Decision Model
Mental Model
Transition Model
Regression
Activity Record
Contextual Model
Thoughts
Region
Emotions
Town/City
Behaviors
Neighborhood
Household
Individual
Episode
Environment
Process Models
Time*
3
Historical
Context
2
Triggers
1
4
Main Event
Immediate
Reaction
5
Long-Term
Consequences
Behaviors
Actor 1
Actor 2, etc.
Thoughts
Actor 1
Actor 2, etc.
Feelings
Actor 1
Actor 2, etc.
Environment
Physical
Social
*Order of Questions: 1. Main event; 2. Triggers; 3. Historical context; 4. Immediate reaction; 5. Long-term consequences
Process Model of System of Care for Women with Breast Cancer
HH
Patients with
abnormal
findings
Step 1
Visit to
discuss
diagnostic
plan
Step 6a
Surgery
Step 2
Biopsy
Step 5
Visit to
discuss
treatment
Step 6b
Chemo
Step 4
Staging
Step 6c
Radiation
RLCC
Step 3
Visit to
review
diagnosis
Metropolitan
Step 7
Resolution
Interactive Event Model
Acto
r1
Acto
r2
Interaction
Event Environment
Actor 1
Prior to Event
Behaviors
Thoughts
Emotions
Environment
Physical
Social
Current Event
Actor2
Prior to Event
Current Event
Interaction
Prior to
Event
Current Event
Social Decision-Making Model
Recognition
of Problem
Generation
of
Alternatives
Diagnosis
of Problem
Selection
among
Alternatives
Recognition &
Diagnosis
Stakeholders
Individual/Patient
Family
Community
Support Staff
Primary Providers
Specialists
Identification &
Selection of
Alternatives
Monitoring
&
Evaluation
Monitoring
Resolution
Secondary Choice &
Specialized Care
Resolution
Example of Social Decision-Making:
The decision to engage in research studies
Unaware
1.a Patient
independently
learns of study?
No
a
Stage 0:
Pre-Awareness
1b. Clinician
Informs/Recommends
Yes
Enrollment?
Yes
Yes
No
Stage 1:
Awareness
b
Aware
No
No
2a. Contact Study
Coordinator?
c
Yes
2b. Eligible for
Study?
d
Stage 2:
Enrollment
Legend
Patient Decision
Yes
Clinician Decision
2c. Enroll in
Study?
No
e
Yes
3. Dropout of
Study?
Yes
f
Investigator Decision
No
Successful Completion
Stage 3:
Retention
Decision model for
the initial choice of
treatment
Is illness
grave?
YES
(29 cases)
NO (i.e.,moderately serious or non-serious)
(271 cases)
Greater faith in Western
medicine than folk
medicine?
Do you know a home
remedy and have it
available?
NO
(32 cases)
YES
(239 cases)
YES
(21 cases)
NO
(8 cases)
NONSERIOUS
(157 cases)
MODERATELY
SERIOUS
(82 cases)
Do you have sufficient
money and transport
available?
YES
(20 cases)
NO
(12 cases)
Greater faith in Western
medicine than folk
medicine?
NO
(8 cases)
YES
(13 cases)
Greater faith in Western
medicine than folk
medicine?
Nonserious or
moderately serious?
NO
(68 cases)
YES
(14 cases)
Physician
Practicante
Folk Curer
Self-treatment
Practicante
Folk Curer
13 cases
2 errors
8 cases
4 errors
8 cases
0 errors
225 cases
1 error
34 cases
9 errors
12 cases
0 errors
Source: Young, James (1981)
Mental models of fish
A multidimensional scaling of the similaries among
the fish according of the North Carolina experts
(Kruskal stess = .18)
Source: Boster & Johnson (1989)
A multidimensional scaling of the similaries among
the fish according of the North Carolina novices
(Kruskal stess = .10)
Example of an Activity Record
Change Tire
ENTER
EXIT
get spare
get ready
put away tire
Change Tire
get jack
slide it under car
slide jack out from under car
jack it
up
part
way
jack it up
part way
remove
hubcap
loosen nuts
put
away
jack
finish up
lower car
all the way lower it
jack
up
car
put on
hubcap
jack up
car all the
way
remove nut
place in hubcap
lower car
part way
Change Tire
remove remove
3rd nut
nuts
replace
nuts
remove
wheel
pull
it
off
Source: Werner & Schoepfle (1987); Werner (1992)
all the
way
remove
jack
lay it
on ground
nearby
put on
wheel
Slide
it
on
push it
past
the
bolts
fasten
3rd nut
tighten nuts
hand tighten nut
get nut from
hubcap
Regression model of viewers’ debate reactions+
Constant
Overall strategy (OPB)
Strategy towards individual politicians (BTI)
Strategy towards parties and institutions (BTP)
Party identification (PID)
Adjusted R2
N
* p < 0.05, two-tailed
**p < 0.01, two-tailed
+ The dependent variable is Choice of Winner.
Source: Schrott and Lanoue (1992:462)
Equation
1
2.649
0.292**
--0.386**
0.57
17
Equation
2
13.095
-0.100
-0.443**
0.43
17
Equation
3
11.207
--0.144**
0.354*
0.59
17
Overall Decision Model
Constraints on Remedies
Rule 1
IF
child has blood stools OR
SSS
child has swollen glands OR
IF
child is vomiting
THEN
you know how to make ORS AND
your child will drink ORS
take child to doctor
THEN
give ORS
Rule 2
IF
diarrhea is caused by empacho
THEN
give physical treatment
Pill or Liquid Medication
IF
Rule 3
you know a medication that works for diarrhea AND
you have it in the house
IF
previous rules do not apply OR
THEN
give the pill or liquid medication
there is no cure with the empacho treatment
THEN
give the highest preferred curing treatment that meets
OR
constraints*
IF
Rule 4
it is cheap AND
IF
previous treatment did not stop diarrhea
THEN
compare the two highest treatments of remaining options
4.1
IF
one is a curing remedy AND
meets its constraints
THEN
give this treatment
IF
both or neither are curing remedies AND
4.2
each meet their respective constraints
THEN
give the highest ranked preference
Rule 5
IF
the previous treatment did not stop the diarrhea AND
the episode is less than 1 week long
THEN
repeat Rule 4
Rule 6
IF
the episode has lasted more than 1 week
THEN
take the child to a doctor
*Only
you know a medication that works for diarrhea AND
SSS or Medications have constraints. These constraints are listed in Figure 2.
Source: Ryan & Martínez (1996)
it is easy to obtain
THEN
give the pill or liquid medication
Two representations of constraints on the use of pills or liquid medications for
mothers treating children with diarrhea in rural Mexico
Constraints on Remedies
Do you know a pill or liquid
medication that works for diarrhea?
SSS
IF
yes
no
you know how to make ORS AND
your child will drink ORS
THEN
Pill or Liquid Medication
yes
IF
you know a medication that works for diarrhea
AND
you have it in the house
THEN
Don’t give pill or
liquid medication
Do you have this in
the house?
give ORS
give the pill or liquid medication
Give pill or liquid
medication
you know a medication that works for diarrhea
AND
it is cheap
AND
it is easy to obtain
THEN
give the pill or liquid medication
no
Is the medication easy
to obtain?
yes
Give pill or liquid
medication
Source: Ryan & Martínez (1996)
Is the medication
cheap?
yes
OR
IF
no
Don’t give pill or
liquid medication
no
Don’t give pill or
liquid medication
Transitions from one treatment modality to another
Lines indicate transitions that took
place more than 5% of the times.
Source: Ryan (1998)
Frequency of transitions from one treatment modality
to another for all illness episodes (N=429)
To Treatment Modality:
From Treatment
Modality:
Begin
Wait
Home
Remedy
Pills
Trad.
Healer
Clinic
Nurse
Hosp.
End
Total
Begin
0
257
66
87
9
8
2
0
0
429
Wait
0
2
88
108
20
8
1
2
30
259
Home Remedy
0
0
49
38
11
7
3
1
147
256
Pills
0
0
47
29
14
3
0
1
176
270
Trad. Healer
0
0
1
7
13
4
0
1
44
70
Clinic
0
0
5
0
3
5
0
2
20
35
Nurse
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
6
Hospital
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
6
7
End
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Source: Ryan (1998)
A model of the politics of strategic decision making in high-velocity environments
Origins of Politics
Organization of Politics
-
Effects of Politics
+
Demographic
Similarity
Time
Consumption
4, 5*
Power
Centralization
1
-
+
7
+
Politics
+
2*
3,6**
+
Stability
of
Alliance
Patterns
+
-
correspond to propositions in the text.
* Refers to necessary, but not sufficient, conditions.
** Refers to propositions involving a time lag.
Source: Eisenhardt &. Bourgeois (1988)
+
Information
Restriction
Conflict
a Numbers
-
Performance
Example: Florida Orange Growers
Draw a Marketing Model Based on Text
Examples of Models
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Contextual
Process
Interactive Event
Decision Model
Mental Model
Transition Model
Regression
Activity Record
Process Models
Time*
3
Historical
Context
2
Triggers
1
4
Main Event
Immediate
Reaction
5
Long-Term
Consequences
Behaviors
Actor 1
Actor 2, etc.
Thoughts
Actor 1
Actor 2, etc.
Feelings
Actor 1
Actor 2, etc.
Environment
Physical
Social
*Order of Questions: 1. Main event; 2. Triggers; 3. Historical context; 4. Immediate reaction; 5. Long-term consequences
Decision model for
the initial choice of
treatment
Is illness
grave?
YES
(29 cases)
NO (i.e.,moderately serious or non-serious)
(271 cases)
Greater faith in Western
medicine than folk
medicine?
Do you know a home
remedy and have it
available?
NO
(32 cases)
YES
(239 cases)
YES
(21 cases)
NO
(8 cases)
NONSERIOUS
(157 cases)
MODERATELY
SERIOUS
(82 cases)
Do you have sufficient
money and transport
available?
YES
(20 cases)
NO
(12 cases)
Greater faith in Western
medicine than folk
medicine?
NO
(8 cases)
YES
(13 cases)
Greater faith in Western
medicine than folk
medicine?
Nonserious or
moderately serious?
NO
(68 cases)
YES
(14 cases)
Physician
Practicante
Folk Curer
Self-treatment
Practicante
Folk Curer
13 cases
2 errors
8 cases
4 errors
8 cases
0 errors
225 cases
1 error
34 cases
9 errors
12 cases
0 errors
Source: Young, James (1981)
Model of Orange Industry Transformation from 1920’s-1970
Based on Oral History of James Richard (Rip) Graves
Rail or Boats
Terminal
Or Auction
No Trucks
Trucks
Large
Chain
No Co-Op
Co-Op
Marketing
Tropicana
Processing
Order
Pack together
Credit
stability